MOHD. HANIF QUARESHI & OTHERS versus THE STATE OF BIHAR

S.C.R. MOHD. HAN!]' QU ARES HI & OTHERS v. THE STATE OF BIHAR (and connected petition) 629. (S. R. DAs C. J., VENKATARAMA AIYAR, S. K. DAs, GAJENDRAGADKAR .and VIVIAN BosE JJ.) Cow slaughter-Legislation placing total ban-If Constitutional -Directive Principles of State Policy, value of-Fundamental rights -Reasonable restrictions–Test-Intervention in Supreme Court proceedings, when permissible-Bihar Preservation and Improvement of Animals Act, r955 (Bihar II of r956)-U. P. Prevention of Cow Slaughter Act, r955 (U. P. I of r956)-C. P. and Berar Animal Preservation Act, r949 (C. P. and Berar Lll of r949)-Constitution of India, Arts. r4, r9, 48-Supreme Court Rules, 0. XLI, r. 2. The Bihar Preservation and Improvement of Animals Ac':,

l95S, put a total ban on the slaughter of all categories of animals of the species of bovine cattle. The U. P. Prevention of Cow Slaughter Act, 1955, put a total ban on the slaughter of cows and her progeny which included bulls, bullocks, heifers and calves.

The C. P. and Berar Animal Preservation Act, 1949, placed a total ban on the slaughter of cows, male or female calves of cow, bulls, bullocks, and heifers and the sla1,1ghter of buff;lloes (male or female, adults or calves) was permitted only under a certificate granted by the proper autho- rities.

No exception was made in any of these Acts permitting slaughter of cattle even for bow1 fide religious purposes. These three Acts were enacted in pursuance of the directive principles of State policy contained in Art. 48 of the Constitution.

The petitioners, who were engaged in the butcher's trade and its subsidiary undertakings, challenged the constitutional validity of the three Acts on the grounds that they infringed their funda- · mental rights guaranteed under Arts. 14, r9(r)(g) and 25 of the Constitution. The respondents contended that the impugned

.Acts were constitutional and valid as they were made in con- sonance with the directive principles of Art. 48 ·which were superior to the fundamental rights and that the impugned Acts did not offend Art. 14, l9(1)(g) or 25 :

. Held, (i) that a total ban on the slaugh.ter of cows of all ages and calves of cows and of she-buffaloes, male and female, was quite reasonable and valid; (ii) that a total ban on the slaughter of she-buffaloes or breeding bulls or working bullocks (cattle as well as buffalo~). as long as they were capable of being used as milch or draught cattle, was also reasonable and valid; and

(iii) that a total ban on the slaughter of she-buffaloes, bulls April 23. SUPR.EME COURT REPORTS [1959] , 95s and bullocks (cattle or buffalo) after they ceased to be capable of yielding milk or of breeding or working as draught animals /lt!ohd. Hanif

was not in the interests of the general public and \vas invalid. Quarcshi The directive in Art. 48 for taking steps for preventing the v. slaughter of animals is quite explicit and positive and contem- The- State 0! Biha~-plates a ban on the slaughter of the several categories of animals specified therein, namely, CO\VS •and calves and other cattle which answer the description of milch or draught cattle. The protection is confined only to cows and calves and to those ani- mals which are presently or potentially capable of yielding milk or of doing work as draught cattle but does not extend to cattle \Vhich at one ti1ne were milch or draught cattle but which have ceased to be such. The directive principles of State policy set out in Part IV of the Constitution have to conform to and run as subsidiary to the fundamental rights in Part III.

State of Madras v. Smt. Champakam Dorairajan, [1951] S.C.R. · 525, followed. The ban on the slaughter of cows even on the Yd ~irban day did not violate the fundamental rights of the petitioners under Art. 25 as it had not been established that the sacrifice of a cow on that day was an obligatory overt act for a Mussalman to exhibit his religious belief and idea.

f Ratilal Panachand Gandhi v. The State of Bombay, [1954] S.C.R. 1055, applied. The impugned Acts which affected only the butchers who slaughtered cattle and not the butchers who slaughtered sheep or goats, did not offend Art. 14 of the Constitution.

The different categories of animals being susceptible of classification into separate groups on the basis'of their usefulness to society, the bntchers who kill each category may also be placed in dis- tinct classes according to the effect produced on society by the carrying on of their respective occupations. This classification is based on an intelligible differentia which places the peti- tioners in a well defined class and distinguishes them from those who slaughter sheep or goat~ and this differentia has a close connection with the object sought to be achieved by the im- pugned Acts, namely, the preservation, protection and improve- ment of livestock.

In determining the question of the: reasonableness of restric- tions imposed •m the fundamental rights conferred by Art. r9(r)(g) the Court cannot proceed on a general notion of what is reasonable in the abstract or even on the consideration of what is reasonable from the point of view of the person or persons on whom the restrictions are imposed.

What the Court has to do is to consider whether the restrictions imposed are reasoll'able in the interests of the general public. The test of reasonableness lias been laid down in State of Madras v. V. G. Row, [1952] S.C.R. 597 at 602. It should also be remembered that the legislature ~.-.

S.C.R. is the best judge of what is good for the community. Though a r958 constitutional question cannot be decided on the grounds of the sentiment of a section of the people, it has to be ta){en into Mohd. Hanif

consideration, though only as one of the elements, in arriving at Quareshi a judicial verdict as to the reasonableness df the restrictions. v The effect ~f the impugned Acts on the fundamental rights The State of Ilihar of the petitioners under Art. r9(r)(g) is direct and instantaneous as soon as the Acts are brought into force, and it has to be determined whether they can be justified under cl. (6) of Art. 19. The country is in short supply of milch cattle, breeding bulls and working bullocks, and a total ban on the slaughter of these which are essential to the national economy for the supply of milk, agricultural working power and manure is a reasonable restriction in the interests of the general public. But a total ban on the slaughter of useless cattle, which involves a wasteful drain on the nation's cattle feed which is itself in short supply and which would deprive the useful cattle of much needed

nourishment, cannot be justified as being in the interests of the genend public. Under 0. XLI, r. z, of the Supreme Court Rules interven- tion is permitted only to the Attorney-General of India or the Advocates-General for the States.

There is no other provision for permitting a third party to intervene in the proceedings before the Supreme Court. In practice, however, the Supreme Court, in exercise of its·inherent powers, allows a third party to intervene when such third party is a party to some proceedings in the Supreme Court or in the High Courts where the same or similar questions are in jssue, for the decision of the Supreme Court will conclude the case of that party.

ORIGINAL JURISDICTION: Petitions Nos. 58, 83, 84, 103, 117, 126, 127, 128, 248, 144 & 145 of 1956 & 129 of 1957. Petitions under Article 32 of the Constitution of India for enforcement of ]'undamental Rights.

H.J. Umrigar, N. H. Hingorani and A. G. Ratna- parkhi, for the petitioners in all the petitions except Petition No. 103 of 1956. The impugned Acts infringe the fundamental rights under Art. 19(l)(g;J of the peti-

tioners who are butchers, tanners, gut merchants, curers and cattle dealers to carry on their respective tr!i.des. Where, as in the present case, the enactment on th~ . face of it violates a fundamental right the

burden lies on those who support it to show that it falls within the purview of cl. (6) of Art. rn. Saghi1~ Ahmed v. The State of U.P., ([1955] 1 S90.R. 707 at 726); [1959] x958 Chiranjitlal Chowdhuri v. The Union of India, ([1950]

Mohd. Hanif S.C.R. 869 at 891-892). The impugned Acts put a Quareshi total ban on the trade and business of the petitioners v. who kill only cattle. Total prohibition of a trade The State of Bihar which is not immoral or obnoxious can never be reasonable restriction within the meaning of cl. (6) of

Art. 19. Chintaman Rao v. The State of JJ1~adhya Pradesh, ( [1950] S.C.R. 759 at 765); R. M. Sheshadri v. The District Magistrate ( [1955] 1 S.C.lt. 686 at 689, 690); Coovei:jee B. Bhar-ucha v. The Exc·ise Commis-

sioner, ( [1954] S.C. R. 873); Rashid Ahmed v. The llfunicipal Board, Kairana, ( [1950] S.C.R. 566). Total ban on the slaughter of cattle is not in the interests of the general public.

Animal husbandry will suffer by a totc;l ban. There is shortage of fodder and pasture in the country and the useless anp un- economic cattle will depri vc the useful cattle of these

things. Setting up of Gosadans for the uneconomiu cattle will be a tremendous waste of public money. [Counsel referred to Yarious official reports in t.his · connection.] The impugned Acts create an odious discrimination

between butchers and persons dealing solely in cows, bulls, etc., and those dealing in sheep and goats, and offend Art. 14. Those Acts which single out the peti- tioners' community which kills only cows, bulls, etc.,

are hostile and discriminatory legislation. Ye Cong Eng v. Trinidad, (70 L. Ed. 1059 at 1071); Fowler v. Rhode Island, (97 L. Ed. 828); Lane v. Wilson, (83 L. Ed. 1281 at 1287); Ligget Go. v. Baldrige, (73 L. Ed.

204). The impugned Acts '1lso contravene Art. 25 as they prohibit the M ussalmans from performing the religious practice of the community to sacrifice the cow on the · occasion of. Bakr Id. Ratilal Panachand Gandhi v.

The State of Bomba.y, ([19,'54] S.C.R. 1055 at 1063). The directive principles of State policy set out in Art. 48 can never override fundament'11 rights. 1 1he State of JJ!ladras v. Sm. Chainpakani Dorairajan,.([1951.J .S.C.R. 525 at 530); Saghir Ahmed's Case, ( [1955] l

S.C.R. '/07 at 727). The impugned Acts traverse beyond th? diructi ve principles in Art. 48. r S.C.R. The Bihar and the Madhya Pradesh Acts which z958 affect inter-State trade in cattle and beef offend Art.

Mohd. Hanif 301 and are void as the assent of the President was Quareshi not taken before enacting them. v. Frank Anthony and ](. L. Mehta, for the petitioners The State 0! l'ihar in Petition No. 103 of 1956.

Section 9 of the U. P. Prevention of Cow Slaughter Act makes the slaughter- ing of cattle a cognisable and non-bailable offence. This and other provisions of the Act are ex facie res-

trictions on the right of the petitioners to carry on their trade. The onus is on the respondents to show that the restrictions are reasonable restrictions in the interests of the general public. Chintaman Rao v.

The State of Madhya Pradesh, ( [1950] S. C. R. 759 at 763); Saghir Ahmed v. The State of U. P., ( [1955] 1 S. C, R. 707 at 726). The legislation is colourable and mala fide and is inspired by religious motives. State of

Madras v. 'V. G. Rao; ( [1952] S. C. R. 59.7). Article 48 in so far as its imposes blanket ban on cow would have to yield to Art 19 (1) (g). The restrictions in the Act amount to total prohibition and extinction of the trade

of beef butchers. Saghir Ahmed's case; Dwarka Prasad Laxmi Narain v. The State of U. P., ( [1954] S.C.R. 803), Fairmout Creamery Co. v.111innesota, (71 L. Ed. 893 at 897). The impugned Act offends Art. 14

as it discriminates against the beef butchers. These butchers have a legal right to slaughter cow for food or sacrifice. Naubahar Singh v. Qadir Bux, (A. I. R. 1930 All. 753); Shahbazkhan v. Umrao Pilri, (I. L. R,.

30 All. 181); Emperor v. Mirhammad Yakub, (I. L. R. 32 All. 571). C. K. Daphtary, Solicitor-General of India, with Mahabir Prasad, Advocate-General of Bihar and S. P. Varma (respondent in Petitions Nos. 58, 83 and 84 of

1956), and with R. H. Dhebar, for the State of Bombay (respondent in Petition No. 117 of 1956). The legis- lature has thought fit that slaughter of cattle should be stopped in the interests of animal husbandry and

publiC"policy. It is not for the Court to say that such a policy should not have been adopted. Bot.h on th~ question of policy and the ex1ent of the restrictions [1959) the Uourt should interfere only if it is convinced that

in n'o view of the matter could the restrictions be iitohd. Eanif Quareshi reasonable. There are two conflicting opinions on v. this controversial matter, i. e., whether there should be

The State of Bika•·total ban or only partial ban. In such a case the opinion of the legislators must prevail and the Court should not interfere where there is controversy as to facts.

State of 1l1adras v. V. G. Rao, ( [1952] S. C. R. 597 at 606); The State of Bihar v. Maharajadhiraja Sir Kameshwar Singh, ( [1952] S. C. R. 889 at 941); Arumughwn v. State of Madras, (I. L. R. [1953] Mad.

937). Unless it can be said that the restrictions have no bearing on the object sought to be achieved the legislation must be upheld. Article 37 enjoins the State to apply the directive principles of State policy

in Part IV. of the Constitution in making laws. , The legislation is in accordance with the direction givei1 in Art. 48 .• The objeut of the legislation is not to c()ntrol any trade or industry but to improve the breed of cattle

and to· organise animal husbandry and agriculture. Unless the legislation directly hits trade or business it does not infringe Art. 19 (1) (g). A. K. Gopalan v. The State, ( [1950] S. C. R. 88 at 101); Ram Singh v. The

State of Delhi, ( [1951] S. C. R. 451 at 455-457); R. S. Ram Jawaya Kapur v. The State of Punjab, ( [1955] 2 S. C.R. 225); State of Bombay v. R. M. D. Chamar- baugwala, (A. I. R. 1957 S. C. 699 at 721).

B. Sen and R. H. Dhebar, for the State of Bombay (respondent in Petitions Nos. 126 to 128 and 248 of 1956), and for the State of Madhya Pradesh (respon- dent in Petition No. 144 of 1956).

JJ1. Adhicai·y, Advocate-General .for the State of Madhya Pradesh and I. N. Shroff, for the State of Madhya Pradesh (respondent in Petition. No. 145 of 1956), adopted the arguments of C. K. Daphtary.

H. N. San1Ja.l, Additional Solicitor-General of India, G. C. Ma.th·~r and G. P. Lal, for the State of U. P. (respondent in Petitions Nos. 103 of 1956 and '129 of l957). T.he provisions of the U. P. Act have a reason-

able relation to the purpose in view i.e. the directive S;C.R. in Art. 48 and consequently the Act .cannot be said to r958 offend Art.19 (1) (g). Chintaman Rao v. The State of Madhya, Pradesh, ( [Hl50] S. C. R. 759 at 763). Accord-

Mohd. Hanif ing to t.he facts and figures given in the Gosamvardhan Quamhi Enquiry Committee's Report the cattle population The stat:· of Rihar was actually decreasing and total ban on slaughter

was necessary to protect and preserve the cattle. The State of U. P. had made ample provisivns for looking after the decrepit cattle, and such cattle also was not une9onomic as it yielded hides and manure.

The U. P. Act which prohibits the slaughter of cattle but not that of buffaloes does not offend Art. 14 as the discrimination is based upon proper classifica- tion. The buffalo does not require any protection.

The female buffalo is in no danger as its yield of milk is very high. The he-buffalo is not very useful for draug"ht purposes and there is no, need to protect it. Besides, the buffalo population is steadily increasing.

The u: P. Act does not violate Art. 25. Article 25 of our Constitution is similar to Art. 8 of the Irish Constitution. There is no religious compulsion on the Mussalmans to sacrifice a cow on Bakr Id Day.

Thakurdas Bhargava, as amicus curiae. The direc- tive principles of State policy in Part IV of the Con- stitution are superior to fundamental rights and the enactments which are in pursuance of the directions

given by Art. 48 are va.lid and constitutional even though they may infringe the fundamental rights of the petitioners. The total ban on cow slaughter in the impugned Acts is justified and is in the interest:>

of the general public. The facts and figures given in the official reports are inaccurate, and there is no real shortage of fodder or pasture land. There is shortage of milk in the country and it is essential to

protect the cow. The bullock takes the 11J.rgest share in meeting the power requirement for our agricultural production. Cow dung manure contributes about rupees 63 crores per year to our national income.

H.J .. Umrigar, in reply. Frank Anthony, also replied. Bi ……. !t!ohd. Hanif [1959] 1958. April 23. The Judgment of the Court was delivered by Quareshi DAS C. J.-These 12 petitions under Art. 32 of our

h v. .1 Constitution raise the question of the constitutional T e State of Bi •ar l 'd 't f th 1 1 · 1 t · t b _ va 1 1 y o ree severa eg1s a ive enac ments ann- . Das c. J. ing the slaughter of certain animals passed by the

States of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh respectively. The controversy concerning the slaugh- ter of cows has been raging in this country for a number of years and in the past it generated consider-

able illwill amongst the two major communities result- ing even in riots and civil commotion in some places. We are, however, happy to note that the rival contentions of the parties to these proceedings have

been urged before us without importing into them the heat of communal passion and in a rational and objective way, as· a matter involving constitutional issues should be. Some of these petitions come from

Bihar, some from U. P. and the rest from Madhya. Pradesh, but as they raise common questions of law, it will be convenient to deal with and dispose of them together by one common judgment.

Petitions Nos. 58 of 1956, 83 of 1956 and 84 of 1956 challenge the validity of the Bihar. Preservation and Improvement of Animals Act,. 1955 (Bihar II of 1956), hereinafter referred to as the Bihar Act. In Petition

No. 58 of 1956 there are 5 petitioners, all of whom are Muslims belonging to the Quraishi community which is said to be numerous and an important section of Muslims of this country. · The members of the com-

munity are said to be mainly engaged in the butchers' trade and its subsidiary undertakings such as the sale of hides, tannery, glue making, gut making and blood- dehydrating, while some of them are also engaged in

the sale and .purchase of cattle and in their distribu- tion over the various areas in the State of Bihar as · well as in the other States of the Union of India. Petitioners Nos. 1 and 2 are butchers and meat ven-

dors who, according to the petition, only sl~ghter cattle and not sheep or goats and are called " Kasais" in contradistinction to the "Chicks" who slaughter S.CJ.R. SUPREME. COURT REPORTS

637, only sheep and. goats. After slaughtering the cattle r958 these petitioners sell the hides to tanners or hide Mohd .. Hanif merchants who are also members of their community Qttareshi

and the intestines are sold to gut merchants. It is v. said that there are approximately 500 other Kasais in The State of Bihar. Patna alone apart from 2 lacs of other Kasais all over

the State of Bihar. The correctness of these figures is Das c. J. not admitted by the respondent State but we do not' doubt that the number of Kasais is considerable. Petitioner No. 3 is the owner of a tanning factory and

Petitioner No. 4 is a gut merchant, while Petitioner No. 5 is the General Secretary of Bihar State Jamiatul Quraish.. In petition No. 83 there are 180 petitioners residing at different places in the State of Bihar who

are all Muslims whose occupation is that of Kasais or cattle dealers or exporters of hides .. In Petition No. 84 there are 170 petitioners all residents of Patna District who are also Muslims belonging to the Quraishi com-

munity and who carry on business as Kasais or dealers of cattle.. All the petitioners · in these three petitions are citizens of India. The Bill, which was eventually passed as the Bihar

Act, was published in the Bihar Gazette on April 20, 1953. The scheme of the Bill, as originally drafted, was, it is said, to put a total ban only on the slaughter of cows and calves of cows below three years of age.

The Bill was sent to a Select .Committee and it!? scope appears to have been considerably enlarged, as will be seen presently. The Bill, as eventually passed by the Bihar Legislature, received the assent of the Governor

on December 8, 1955, and was published in the Official Gazette on January 11, 1956, Section 1 of the Act came into force immediately upon such publication, but before any notification was issued under sub-s. (3)

of s. 1 bringing the rest of the Act or any part of it into force in the State'or any part of it, •the present petitions were filed in this Court challenging the consti- · tutional validity of the Act.

On ap:elications for an ~nterim order restraining the State of Bihar from issu" ing a ntitification under s. 1(3) of the Act bringing the Act into operation having been made in these petitions, .

• the respondent State1 . by and through the learned [1959] r958 Solicitor General of India, gave an undertaking not to issue such notification until the disposal of these peti- llfohd. Hanif

Quam/,, tions and, in the premises, no order was considered v, necessary to be made on those applications. The Slate of Bihar Petition N 0. 103 of 1956 has been filed by two petitioners, who are both Muslims residing in Uttar

Da' c. J. Pradesh and carrying on business in that State, the first one as a hide merchant and the second as a butcher. Petitioners in Petition No. 129 are eight in number all of whom are Muslims residing and carrying

on business in Uttar Prad.esh either as gut inerchants or cattle dealers, or Kasais or beef vendors or bone dealers or hide merchants or cultivators. All the petitioners in these two applications are citizens of

India. By these two petitions the petitioners challenge the validity of the Uttar Pradesh Prevention of Cow Slaughter Act, 1955 (U. P. I of 1956), hereiirnfter referred to as the U. P. Act and pray for a writ in the

nature of mandamus directing the respondent State of Uttar Pradesh not to take any steps in pursuance of the U. P. Act or to interfere with the fundamental rights of the petitioners.

Petitions Nos. 117 of 1956, 126 of 1956, 127 of 1956, 128 of 1956, 248 of 1956, 144 of 1956 and 145 of 1956 have been filed by 6, 95, 541, 58, 37, 976 and 395 peti- tioners respectivly,allof whom are Muslims belonging

to the Quraishi Community and are mainly engaged in the butchers' trade and its subsidiary undertaking such as the supply of hides, tannery, glue making, gut- making and blood-dehydrating. Most of them reside at

different places which, at the dates of the filing of these petitions were parts of the State of Madhya Pradesh, but which or parts of which have, in the course of the recent re-organisation of the States, been transferred

to and amalgamated with the State of Bombay. In consequence of such re-organisation of the States the State of Bombay has had to be substituted for the respondent State of Madhya Pradesh in the first five

petitions and to be added in the sixth petition, for ·a part of the district in which the petitioners resill.ed had . been su transferred, while the ·State of Madhya Pradesh continues to be the respondent in the seventh

S.U.R. petition. By these petitions the petit.ioners all of :r:95a whom are citizens of India, challenge the va.lidity of Mnhd. Hanif the G. P. and Berar Animal Preservation Act, 1949

Quare.lti (C. P. and Berar LII of 1949), as subsequently v. amended. The State of Bihar In order to appreciate the arguments advanced for ana." against the constitutional validity of the three

Das c. J. impugned Acts ~t will be necessary to refer to the relevant provisions of the · Constitution under or pursuant to which they have been made. Reference must first be made to Art. 48 which will be found in

Chapter IV of the Qonstitution which enshrines what are called the directive principles of State policy. Under Art. 37 these directive principles are not enforce- aJ;>le by any court of law but are nevertheless funda-

me:qtal in the governance of the country and are to be applied by the State in making laws. Article 48 runs thus:- " Organisation of agriculture · and animal husbandry. 48. The State shall endeavour

to organise agriculture and animal husbandry on mbdern and scientific lines and shall, in parti- cular, take step§ for preserving and improving the breeds, and prohibiting the slaughter, of cows

and calves and bther milch and draught cattle." The principal purpose of this articlt>, according to learned counsel for the petitioners, is to direct the State to endeavour to organise agriculture and animal

husbandry on mod~rn and scientific lines, and the rest of t~e provisions of that article are ancillary to this principal purpose. They contend that the States are required t.o take steps for preserving and improving

the breeds and for prohibiting the sl~ughter of the animals specified therein ~nlly with a view to imple- ment that principal purpose, that is to say, only as parts of the general scheme for organising our agri-

culture and animal husbandry oh modern and scientific lines.• Learned· counsel for the petitioners refer to the marginal nofo to Art. 48 in support of their contention on this part of the case. · They also rfly on entry 15

[1959] ,958 in List II of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution. That entry reads: "Preservation, protection and im~· l\<Johd. Iianif Qnare,J,i provement of stock arid prevention of animal diseases;

v. veterinary training and practice." There is no The ·''"'' 0! B;~., separate legislative head for prohibition of slaughter of animals and that fact, they claim, lends support to

"' c. J. their conclusion that the prohibition of the slaughter of animals specified in the last part of Art. 48 is only ancillary to the principal directions for p1'eserv:i,tion, protection and improvement of stock, which is what

is meant by organising· agriculture and animal husbandry. Learned counsel for., the respondents :i,nd Pandit Thakurdas Bh:i,rgava, who appears as amicus cnriae, on the other hand, m:i,intain that the article

contains three distinct and separate directions, each of which should, they urge, be implemented indel'eii- dently and as a separate charge. It is not necessary for us, on this occasion, to express a final opinion on

this question. Suffice it to say that there is no conflict between the different parts of this article and indeed the. two last directives for preserving and improving the breeds and for the prohibition of slaughter of

certain specified_ animals represent, as is indicated by the words "in particular", two special aspects of the preceding general directive for organising agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines.

\Vhether the last two directives· are ancillary to the first as contended for by learned counsel for the peti- tioners or are separate and independent items of direc- tives as cbimcd by counsel on the other side, the

directive for taking steps for preventing the slaughter of the anim11ls is quite explicit and positive 11nd con- te111,pl11tes a ban on the slaughter of t,he several ca.tego- ries of a.nimals specified therein, namely, cows and

rnilves and otper cattle which answer the description of milch or draught cattle. The protection recom- mended by this part of the directive is, in our opinion, confined only to cows and calves and to those :i,nimals

which are presently or potentially capable of yielding milk or of doing work as draught cattle but doe's not, from the' very nature of the purpose for which it is obviously recommended, extend to cattle which at

• .. .F S;C.R. one time were milch or draught cattle but which have r958 ceased to be such. It is pursu1J.nt to these directive principles and in exercise of the powers conferred by

M~d. a;~if Arts. 245 and 246 of the Constitution read with entry ua~~s" 15 in List .II of the Seventh Schedule thereto that the The State of Bihar Legislatures of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya

Pradesh have respectively enacted the statute$ which Das c. J. are challenged as unconstitutional. In order properly to appreciate the meaning and scope of the impugned Acts it has to be borne in mind that each one of those

Acts is a law with respect to "preservation, protection and improvement of stock '', and their constitutional validity will have to be judged in that context and against that background. Keeping this consideration

in view, we proceed now to examine the relevant provisions of the three Acts. Tlte title of the Bihar Act is "An Act to provide for the preservation and improvement of certain animals

in the State of Bihar." Sub-section (3) of s. l provides that that section shall come into force at once and the remaining provisions of the Act or any of them shall come into force on such date as the State Government

may, by notification, appoint and-that different dates may be appointed for different provisions and for different areas. Section 2 is the definition section and the following definitions are to be noted:

"(a) "Animal" means- (i) bull, bulloc1', cow, heifer, buffalo, calf, sheep, goat and any other ruminating animal; (ii) poultry ; and (iii) elephant, horse, camel; ass, mule, dog, swine and such other domesticated animals as may be

specified in this behalf by the State Government bv notification in the Official Gazette; . {b) …………………………. ~················· .. •··••········••• (c) "bull" means an uncastrated ma!e above the

age of three years belonging to the species of bovine cattle; (d) "bullock" means a castrated male above the age of ~hree years belonging to the species specified in clause (c); {e) "calf" means a female or a ·Castrated or

[19591 ·1958 uncastrated male, of the age of three years and below belonging to the species specified in clause ( c) ; !vlohd. lian1f Quamhi (f). · · · ·" ·''' """' "'""' · · ·' · · ·' · · ·' • ·" • • · ""'" • "' "" · • • v.

(g) " cow " means a female above the age of three The State of Biha. years belonging to the species specified in clause (c); Das C. j. …………………………………………………………. Section 3, which is the principal section for the pur-

poses of the Bihar Petitions, runs as follows : "3. Prohibition of slaughter of cow, calf, bull or bullock. Notwithstanding anything contained in any law for the time being in force or in any usage or custom

to the contrary, no person shall slaughter a cow, the calf of a cow, a bull or a bullock ; Provided that the State Government may, by general or special order and subject to such conditions

as it may. think fit to impose, allow the slaughter of any such animal for any medicinal or research pur- poses." Section 4 provides for penalties for contravention or attempted contravention or abetment of contraven-

tion of any of the provisions of s. 3. The remaining · provisions in the following three chapters are not material for our present purpose. It will be noticed that the words" bull", "bullock"," calf" and" cow"

have been defined in els. (c), (d), (e) and (g) of s. 2 as belonging to the species of bovine cattle. The expres- sion "species of bovine cattle" is wide enough to in- clude and does in ordinary parlance include buffaloes,

(male, or female adults or calves). Therefore, the corresponding categories of buffaloes, namely' buffalo bulls, buffalo bullocks, buffalo calves and she-buffaloes must be taken as included in the four defined catego-

ries of the species of bovine cattle and as such within the prohibitiDn embodied in s. 3 of the Act. It is to be noted, however, that the allegations in the petitions and the affi~avits in opposition proceed on the assump-

tion that buffaloes (male or female adults or calves) were not within the protection of the section and, . indeed, when the attention of learned counsel for the petitionel's was drawn to the reference to the " species

of bovine cattle '.' in each of the four definitions, they r S.C.R. st.ill made an attempt to support the latter view by Ig58 suggesting that if buffaloes wore to be included within

the words defined in els. (c), (d), (e) and (g), then there M~:~,::;•if v.ras no necessity for specifying it separately in the v. definition of" animal" in cl. (a). This argument does The State of Bihar

not appear to us to be sound at all, for, then, on a parity of reasoning it was wholly unnecessary to Das c. J. specify "heifer" in the definition of ",animal" .. If " heifer " is not to be included in the definition of

"cow" because "heifer" is separately enumerated in the definition of" animal " then an astounding result will follow, namely, that the operative part of s. 3 will not prohibit the slaughter of " heifer " at all-a

result which obviously could not possibly have been intended. The obvious reason for the enumeration of the different categories of animals in the definition of "animal" must have been to provide a word of wide

import so that all those sections where tho wider word "animal" is used may apply to the different kinds of animals included within that term. If the intention of the Bihar legislature was to exclude buffaloes (male or

female adults or calves) from the protection of s. 3 then it must be said that it has failed to fulfil its intention. The U. P. Act is intituled "An Act to prohibit the slaughter of cow and its progeny in Uttar Pradesh."

The preamble to the Act recites the expediency "to prohibit and prevent the slaughter of cow and its pro- geny in Uttar Pradesh". Although the U. P. Act has been made under entry 15 in List II and presum-

ably pursuant to the directives contained in Art. 48 nowhere in the Act is there any express reference whl).tever to the "preservation, protection or improve- ment of stock." Section 2 defines "beef" as meaning

the flesh of cow but does not include the flesh of cow contained in sealed containers and imported as such in Uttar Pradesh. Clause (b) is very important, for it defines "cow " as including a bull, bullock, heifer, or

calf. Section 3, which is the operative section runs thus: • " 3. Notwithstanding anything contained in any . [1959] other law for the time being in force or any usage or custom to the contrary, no person shall slaughter or

Mohd. Hanif cause to be slaughtered or offer or cause to be offer- Qttareshi v. ed for slaughter any cow in any place in Uttar r958 The State of Bihar Pradesh." Two exceptions are made by s. 4 in respect of cows

Das c. f. suffering from contagious or infectious disease or which is subjected to experimentation in the interest of medical or public health research. Section 5 pro- hibits the sale or transport of beef or beef products in

any form except for medicinal purposes and subject to the provisions of the exception therein mentioned. Section 6, on which counsel for the State relies, pro- vides for the establishment, by the State Government

or by any local authority wherever so directed by the State Government, of institutions as may be nec~ssary for taking care of uneconomic cows. Under s. 7 the State Government may levy such charges or fees, as

may be prescribed for keeping uneconomic cows in the institutions. Section 8 provides for punishment for contravention of the provisions of ss. 3, 4 and 5. Section 9 makes the . offences created by the Act

cognisable and non-bailable. Section 10 gives power to the State Government to make rules for the pur- pose of carrying into effect the provisions of the Act. It should be noted that the U. P. Act protects the

" cow", which, according to the definition, includes only bulls, bullocks, heifer and calves. There is no reference to the species of bovine cattle and, therefore, the buffaloes (male or female adults or calves) are

completely outside the protection of this Act. The C. P. and Berar Act of 1949 was originally intituled " An Act to provide for preservation of certain animals by controlling the slaughter thereof,"

and the pi;eamble recited that it was " expedient to provide for the preservation of certain animals by controlling the slaughter thereof." " Animal" was defined in s. 2 as meaning an animal specified in the

schedule. The schedule specified the following catego- ries of animals, namely, (1) bulls, (2) bullocks, (3) cows, (4) calves, (5) male and.female buffaloes and (6) buffalo calves. Sectiqn 4 originally prohibited the slaughter

S.C.R. of an " animal " without certificate. There was then r958 no total ban on the slaughter of any animal as defined. In 1951, the C. P. and Berar Animal Preservation Act, M~~~.::;;nif

1949, was amended by the Madhya Pradesh Act v. XXIII of 1951. By this amending Act the words The State of Biliar " by prohibiting or " were added to the long title and the preamble before the word " controlling " and a

Das c. J. new clause was added to s. 2 as cl. (i) (a) defining "cow" as including a female calf of a cow and sub- s. I of s. 4 was amended so as to read as follows : "(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in any

other law for the time being in force or in any usage to the contrary, no person- (a) shall slaughter a cow; or (b) shall slaughter any other animal unless he has obtained in respect of such other animal a certifi-

cate 1n writing signed by the executive authority and the veterinary officer for the area in which the animal is to be slaughtered that the animal is fit for slaughter." Thus a total ban was imposed on the slaughter of

cows and female calf of a cow and the male calf of a cow, bull, bullock, buffalo (male or female adult or calf) could be slaughtered on obtaining a certificate. The Act was further amended in 1956 by Act X of

1956 substituting for the amended definition of" cow" introduced by the amending Act of 1951 as cl. (l)(a) of s. 2 of the C. P. and Berar Animal Preservation Act, 1949, a new definition of " cow " as including a male

or female calf of a cow, bull, bullock or heifer and a new schedule specifying only (1) cows, (2) male and female buffaloes and (3) buffalo calves was substituted for the original schedule to the Act. Shortly put the

position in Madhya Pradesh has been this: while ·under the C. P. and Berar Animal Preservation Act, 1949, as it originally stood, the slaughter• of all cate- gories of animals mentioned in the original schedule

were only controlled by the requirement of a certifi- cate from the appropriate authority before the actual slaughter, by the amending Act XXIII of 1951, a total ban was imposed on the slaughter of "cows:' which·

was then defined as including only a ~emale calf of a [1959) '958 cow and the slaughter of all other categories of Mohd. Hanif animals coming within the original schedule was con-

Quamhi trolled and finally after the amending Act X of 1956, v. there is now a total ban on the slaughter of" cows" The State of Bihar which by the new definition includes a male or female calf of a cow, bull, bullock or heifer so that the male

Das c. J. and female buffaloes .and buffalo calves (male and female) can still be slaughtered but on certificate issued by the proper authorities mentioned .in the Act. The Madhya Pradesh Act X of 1956, amending the C. P.

and Berar Animal Preservation Act, 1949, received the assent of the Governor on · May 18, 1956. The C. P. and Berar Animal Preservation Act, 1949, as amended up to 1956, is hereinafter referred to as the

Madhya Pradesh Act. To sum up, under the Bihar Act there is in the State of Bihar a total ban on slaughter of all categories of animals of the species of bovine cattle. In Uttar Pradesh there is, under the U. P. Act, a total ban on

the slaughter of cows and her progeny which include bulls, bullocks, heifer or calves. The buffaloes (male or female adults or calves) are completely outside the protection of the Act. In the present Madhya Pra-

desh and the districts which formerly formed part of Madhya Pradesh but have since been transferred to the State of Bombay and where the Madhya Pradesh law including the Madhya Pradesh Act still applies,

there is a total ban on the slaughter of cow, male or female calves of a cow, bulls, bullocks, or heifers and the slaughter of buffaloes (male or female adults or calves) are controlled in that their slaughter is per-

mitted under certificate granted by the proper autho- rities mentioned in the Act. No exception has been made in any of these three Acts permitting slaughter of cattle even for bona fide religious purposes such as

has been made, say, in the Bombay Animal Preserva- tion Act, 1948 (Born. LXXXI of 1948). As already stated the petitioners, who are citizens of India, and Muslims by religion, mostly belong to the

Qnraishi community and are generally engaged in the · butchers' trade and its subsidiary undertakings such as supply of h~des, tannery, glue making, gut making S.C.R. and blood de-hydniting, Those, who carry on the

r95S butchers' trade, are mostly~ Kasais \vh.o, the l?etitioners h l Mohd. Hanif say, kill only cattle uut not sheep or goat w ic l are Quareshi slaughtered by other persons known as Chicks. Learn-

v. ed counsel appearing for the petitioners challenge the The State of Bihar constitutional validity of the Act.s respectively a pplic- able to them on three grounds, namely, that they

Das c. J. offend the fundamental rights guaranteed to them by Arts. 14, 19(1)(g) and 25. Learned counsel appearing for the respondent States, of course, seek to support their respective enactments

by controverting the reasons advanced by learned counsel for the peti- tioners. Bharat Go-Sevak Samaj, All India Anti- Cow-Slaughter Movement Committee, Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha and lVI. P. Gorakshan Sangh

put in petitions for leave to intervene in these pro- ceec!ings. Under Order XLI, rule 2, of the Supreme Court Rules intervention is permitted only to the Attorney-General of India or the Advocates-General

for the States. There is no other express provision for permitting a third party to intervene in the pro- ceedings before this Court. In practice, however, this Court, in exercise of its inherent powers, allows a third

party to intervene when such third party is a party to some proceedings in this Court or in the High Courts where the same or similar questions are in issue, for the decision of this Court will conclude the case of

that party. In the present case, however, the peti- tioners for intervention are not parties to any pro- ceedings and we did not think it right to permit them formally to intervene in these proceedings ; but in

view of the importance of the questions involved in these proceedings we · have heard Pandit Thakurdas Bhargava, who was instructed by one of these peti- tioners for intervention, as amicus cY,riae.

'Ve ate deeply indebted to all learned counsel <1ppearing for the parties and to Pan~it Thakurdas Bhargava for the valuable assistance they have given us. Before we actually take up and deal with the alleged

infraotion of the petitioners' fundamental rights, it is necessary to dispose of a preliminary question raised by Pandit Thakurchi.s Bhargava. It will be recalled [1959] x958 that the impugned Acts were made by the States in

discharge of the obligations laid on them by Art. 48 to l\fohd. Hanif d d Quareshi en eavour to organise agricu ture an animal husban- v. dry and in particular to take steps for preserving and

The State of Bi/1ar improving the breeds and prohibiting the slaughter of certain specified animals. These directive principles, Das c. J. it is true, are not enforceable by any court of law but

nevertheless they are fundamental in the governance of the country and it is the duty of the State to give effect to them. These laws having thus been made in discharge of that fundamental obligation imposed on

the State, the fundamental rights conferred on the citizens and others by Chapter III of the Constitution must be regarded as subordinate to these laws. The directive principles, says learned counsel, are equally,

if not more, fundamental and must prevail. We are unable to accept this argument as sound. Article •13(2) expressly says that the State shall not make any bw which takes away or abridges the rights conferr.ed by

Chapter III of our Constitution which enshrines the fundamental rights. The directive principles cannot over-ride this categorical restriction imposed on the legislative power of the State. A harmonious inter-

pretation has to be placed upon the Constitution and so interpreted it means that the State should certainly implement the directive principles but it must do so in such a way that its laws do not take away or abridge

the fundamental rights, for otherwise the protecting provisions of Chapter III will be " a mere rope of sand ". As this Court has said in the State of Madras v. Smt. Champakam Dorairajan (1) , "The directive

principles of State policy have to conform to and run as subsidiary to the Chapter on Fundamental Rights". Coming now to the arguments as to thll violation of the petitioners' fundamental rights, it will be conveni-

ent to take Ul' first the complaint founded on Art. 25(1). That article runs as follows : "Subject to public order, morality and health and to the other provisions of this Part, all., persons are

equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right free,ly to profess, practise and propagate religion". (1) [1951) S.C.R. 525, 531 . S.C.R. After referring to the provisions of cl. (2) which lays

I958 down certain exceptions which are not material for Mohd. Hanif our present purpose this Court has, in Ratilal Pana- Quamhi chand Gandhi v. 'l'he State of Bombay (1) explained the

v. meaning and scope of this article thus: The State of Bihar "Thus, subject to the restrictions which this article imposes, every person has a fundamental right Das c. f. under our Constitution not merely to entertain such

religious belief as may be approved of by his judgment or conscience but to exhibit his belief and ideas in such overt acts as are enjoined or sanctioned by his religion and further to propagate his religious views

for the edification of others. It is immaterial also whether the propagation is made by a person in his individual capacity or on behalf of any church or institution. The free exercise of religion by which is

meant the performance of outward acts in pursuance of relgious belief, is, as stated above, subject to State regulation imposed to secure order, public health and morals of the people. "

What then, we inquire, are the materials placed before us to substantiate the claim that the sacrifice of a cow is enjoined or sanctioned by Islam ? The mate- rials before us are extremely meagre and it is surpris-

ing that on a matter of this description the allegations in the petition should be so ·vague. In the Bihar Peti- tion No. 58 of 1956 are set out the following bald allegations : "That the petitioners further respectfully submit

that the said impugned section also violates the funda- mental rights of the petitioners guaranteed under Arti- cle 25 of the Constitution in-as-much as on the occasion of their Bakr Id Day, it is the religious prac-

tice of the petitioners' community to sacrifice a cow on the said occasion. The poor members of the commu- nity usually sacrifice one cow for every 7 members whereas it would require one sheep or one goat for

each member which would entail considerably more expense. As a result of the total ban imposed by the impugned section the petitioners would not even be allowed to make the said sacrifice which is a practice

(1) [1954] S.C.R. 1055, 1062-1063. [1959] and custom in their religion, enjoined upon them by the Holy Quran, and practised by all Muslims from !i1ohd. Hanif Quamhi time immemorial and recognised as such in I.ndia. "

v. The allegations 'in the other petitions are similar. The State of fahar These are met by an equally bald denial in pn.ra. 21 of Das C. ]. the affidn.vit in opposition. .No affidavit has been

filed by any person specially competent to expound the relevant tenets of Islam. No reference is made in the petition to any particular Surah of the Holy Quran which, in terms, requires the sacrifice of a cow. , All

that was placed before us during the argument we.re Surah XXII, Verses 28 and 33, and Surah CVIII. What the Holy book enjoins is that people should pray unto the Lord and make sacrifice.

We have no affidavit before us by any l\faulana explaining the implications of those verses or throwing any lig~t on this problem. \Ve, however, find it laid down in Hamilton's translation of Hedaya Book XLIII at

p. 592 that it is the duty of every free Mussulman, arrived at the age of maturity, to offer a sacrifice on the Yd Kirban, or festival of the sacrifice, provided he be then possessed ofNisab and be not a traveller. The

sacrifice established for one person is a goat and that for seven a cow or a camel. It is therefore, optional for a Muslilll; to sacrifice a goat for one person or a cow or a camel for seven persons.

It does not appear to be obligatory that a person must sacrifice a cow. The very fact of an option seems to run counter to the notion of an obliga. tory duty. It is, however, pointed out that a person

with six other members of his family may afford to sacrifice a c9w but may not be able to afford to sacrifice seven goats. So there may be an econo. mic ·compulsion 'although there is no religious compul.

sion. lt is als,p pointed. out that from time immemorial the Indian Mussalmans have been sacrificing cows and this practice, if not enjoined, is certainly sanctioned by their religion and it amounts to their practice 6f

religion protected by Art. 25. While the petitioners claim that the sacrifice of a cow is essential, the State denies the obligatory nature of the religious practice. The fact, emph~sised by the respondents, cannot be

S.C.R. disputed, namely, that many Mussalmans do not r95s sacrifice a cow on the Bakr Id Day. It is part of the Mohd. Hanif known history of India that the Moghul Emperor Quareshi

Bahar saw the wisdom of prohibiting· the slaughter of v. cows as and by way of religious sacrifice and directed The State of Bihar · his son Humayun to follow this example. Similarly

Emperors Akbar, Jehangir, and Ahmad Shah, it is Das c. J. said, prohibited cow slaughter. Nawab Hyder Ali of Mysore made cow slaughter an offence punishable with the cutting of the hands of the offenders.

Three of the members of the Gosamvardhan Enquiry Com- mittee set up by the Uttar Pradesh Government in 1953 were Muslims and concurred in the unanimous recommendation for total ban on slaughter of cows.

We have, however, no material on the record before us which will enable us to say, in the face of the fore- going· facts, that the sacrifice of a cow on that day is an obligatory overt act for a Mussalman to exhibit his

religious belief and idea. In the premises, it is not possible for us to uphold this claim of the petitioners. The next complaint is against the denial of the equal protection of the law. It is thus formulated:

The petitioners are Muslims by religion and butchers (Kasais) by occupation and they carry on the trade of selling beef. The impugned Acts prejudicially affect only the Muslim Kasais who kill cattle but not others

who kill goats and sheep and who sell goats' meat and mutton. It is, therefore, clear that only the Muslim Kasais, who slaughter only cattle but not sheep or goats, have been singled out for hostile and discrimi-

natory treatment. Their further grievance is that the U. P. Act makes a distinction even between butchers who kill cattle and butchers who kill buffaloes and the Madhya Pradesh Act also makes a like discrimination

in that slaughter of buffaloes is permitte~, although under certificate, while slaug):iter of cows, bulls, bullocks and calves are totally prohibited. In the premises the petitioners contend that the law which

permits such discrimination must be struck down as violativ~ of the salutary provisions of Art. 14 of the Constitution. [1959] The meaning, scope and effect of Art. 14, · which is

the equal protection clause in our Constitution, has iWohd. H anif been explained by this Court in a series of decisions in Quareshi v: cases beginning with Ohiranjitlal Choudhury v. The

T'he State of Bihar Union of India (1) and ending with the recent case of Ram Krishna Dalmia and . others v. Sri Justice S. R. Das c. J. Tendolkar ('). It is now well established that while

Art. 14 forbids class legislation it does not forbid reasonable clitssification for.the purposes of legislation and that in order to pass the test of permissible classi- fication two conditions must be fulfilled, namely, (i)

the classification must be founded on an intelligible differentia which distinguishes persons or things that are grouped together from others left out of the group and (ii) such differentia must have a rational relation

to the object sought t·o be achieved by the statute in question. The classification, it has been held, may be founded on different bases, namely, geographical, or according to obj°ects or occupations or the like aud

what is necessary is that there must be a nexus between the basis of classification and the object of the Act under consideration. The pronouncements of this Court further establish, amongst other things, that

there is always a presumption in favour of the constitu- tionality of an enactment and that the burden is upon him, who attacks it, to show that there has been a clear violation of the constitutional· principles. The

courts, it is accepted, must presume that the legisla- ture understands and correctly appreciates the needs of its own people, that its laws are directed to pro- blems made manifest by experience and tliat its discri-

minations are based on adequate grounds. It must be borne in mind that the legislature is free to recognise degrees of harm and may confine its restrictions to those cases where the need is deemed to be the clearest

and finally that in ord('r to sustain the presumption of constitutionality the Court may take into considera- tion matters of common knowledge, matters of common report, the history of the times and may assume every

state of facts which can be conceived existing" at the · time of legislation. We, therefore, proceed to examine (1) [1950] ~.C.R. ~9· (2) [1959] S.C.R. 279. S.C.R. the impugned Acts in the light of the principles thus

x958 enunciated by this Court. The impugned Acts, ·it may be recalled,. have been Mohd. H::•if made by the States in discharge of the obligations im- Qu:;es ' posed on them by Art. 48. In order to implement the The State. of Bihar directive principles the respect.ive Legislatures enacted

the impugned Acts in exercise of the powers conferred Das c. J. on them by Art. 246 read with entry 15 in List II of the Seventh Schedule. It is, therefore, quite clear that the objects sought to be achieved by the impugn-

ed Acts are the preservation, protection and improve- ment of livestocks. Cows, bulls, bullocks and calves of cows are no doubt the most important cattle for the agricultural economy of this country. :Female buffaloes

yield a large quantity of m~lk and are, therefore, well looked after and do not need as much protection as cows yielding a small quantity of milk require. As draught cattle male buffaloes are not. half as useful as

bullocks. Sheep and goat give very little milk com- pared to the cows and the female buffaloes and have practically no utility as draught animals. These different categories of animals being susceptible of

classification into separate groups on the basis of their usefulness to society, the butchers who kill each cate- gory may also be placed in distinct classes according to the effect produced on society by the carrying on of

their respective occupations. Indeed the butchers, who kill cattle, according to the allegations of the petitioners themselves in their respective petitions, form a well defined class based on their occupation.

That classification is based on an intelligible differentia which places them in a well defined class and distin- guishes them from those who kill goats and sheep and this differentia has a close connection with the object

sought to be aqhieved.by the impugned ~ct, namely, the preservation, protection and improvement of our livestock. The attainment of these objectives may well necessitate that the slaughterers of cattle should be dealt with more stringently than the slaughterers of,

say, go 0ats and sheep. The impugned Acts, therefore, have adopted a classification on sound and in.telligible: basis and can quite clearly stand the t~st laid down in [1959] z95B

the decisions of this Court. Whatever objections Mohd. Hanif there may be against the validity of the impugned Quareshi Acts the denial of equal protection of the laws does v. not, prima facie, appear to us to be one of them. In

The State 01 Biha• any case, bearing in mind the presumption of consti- Da-;-;;_ J. tutionality attaching to all enactments founded on the recognition by the court of the fact that the legisla-

ture correctly appreciates the needs of its own people there appears to be no escape from the conclusion that the petitioners have not discharged the onus that was on them and the challenge under Art. 14 cannot,

therefore, prevail. Learn\ld counsel for the petitioners then take their final stand on Art. 19(1)(g). Immediately learned counsel for the respondents-counter the charge by say- ing that Art. 19(1}(g) can hit only the law which, pur-

ports to directly violate its provisions. The impugned Acts, we are reminded, have been made in implementa- tion of the directive principles laid down in Art. 48 and are laws with respect to matters set forth in entry

15 of List II and it is emphasised that the sole purpose of these enactments is to secure the preservation, pro- tection and improvement of stock and that its real aim is not to take away or abridge the rights guaranteed by

Art. ·19(1 )(g). If at all, these enactments may only indirectly and incidentally affect those rights but that circµmstance cannot alter their real nature and pur- pose. Reliance is placed in support of this contention

on the following observations of Kania C. J. in A. K. Gopalan v. The State (1). " If there is a legislation directly attempting to control a citizen's freedom of speech or expression, or

his right to assemble peaceably and without arms, etc., the question whether that legislation is saved by the relevant savjng ·clause of artiqle 19 will arise. If, however, the legislation is not directly in respect of any of these subjects, but as a result of the operation of

other legislation, for instance, for punitive or preven- tive detention, his right under any ·of these sub-,clauses is abridged, the question of the application of article :19 does not arise. The true approach is only to con-

sider the directness of the legislation and not what will • (I) [1950JS.C.R.' 88, IOI. c S.C.R. be the result of the detention otherwise valid, on the I958 mode of the detenue's life. "

Mohd. Hanif This part of the argument advanced on behalf of the Quareshi respondents is further sought to be reinforced by the v. fact that the above observations of Kania C. J. had The State of Bihar subsequently been adopted by this Court in Ram Singh

v. The State of Delhi (1 ). Those observations of Kania Das c. f. C. J. should, in our opinion, be read in the context of the facts of those cases. It should be remembered that both these cases arose out of orders made under the

Preventive Detention Act, 1950. Article 22, which is to be found in Chapter III of the Constitution, recog- nises the necessity for preventive detention, however odious it may be. The purpose of the Act under whicl'i.

the detention orders had been made in those cases, was to wevent the persons concerned from acting in any manner prejudicial to one or other of the three impor- tant matters specified therein. The effect of the execu-

tion of the orders was to deprive those persons of their liberty according to procedure established by law. Preventive detention, like punitive detention, having taken away the personal liberty of those persons they

could not claim the rights under Art. 19(l)(a)to (e) and (g) for those were the rights of free men. It was, there- fore, considered that the primary and direct object of the Preventive Detention Act, 1950, being, inter alia,

to secure the security of the State and maintenance of law and order, its impact on the fundamental rights was indirect and, therefore, the Act could not be chal- lenged for breach of the fundamental rights under Art.

19(1). The position in the cases now before us is quite different. The last part of the directive principles embodied in Art. 48 require the State to take steps for prohibiting the slaughter of the specified animals and

this directive can only be carried out br prohibiting the petitioners and other butchers (Kasais) from slaugh-· tering them. There can be no mistake about the directness of these legislations vis-a-vis the petitioners and other butchers and the effect of these legislations

on their rights is direct and instantaneous as soon as they are brought into force. The title of the'U. P. Act (1) (1951] S.C.R. 451, 456-457. [1959] '958 does not even attempt to conceal the directness of its

Mohd. Honif impact on the butchers of Uttar Pradesh. The argu- Quamhi ment of learned counsel for the respondents on this v. point cannot be accepted and the question of the alleg-

7Ae Slate of Bihared violation of Art. 19(l)(g) has to be dealt with on Das C. ]. merits. The complaint of the petitioners under Art. 19 (1) (g) is that the impugned Acts, if enforced, will compel

them at once to close down their business and will, in effect, amount to a complete denial of their right to carry· on their occupation, trade or business in spite of the mandatory provisions of Art,. 19(l)(g). The objec-

tion iS elaborated thus: The livelihood of a butcher of battle depends on the existence of many factors. First he has to purchase the cattle which he will slaughter. The statistics will show that a large number of ,.attle

are slaughtered for food every year. According to Table II on p. 24 of the Report on the Marketing of Cattle in India 18,93,000 heads of cattle and 6,09,000 buffaloes were slaughtered in the year 194.8.

Taking that 7 goats are the equivalent in flesh of 1 cow or buffalo these butchers who slaughter 25,02,000 bovine cattle will have to find 7 times that number of goats or sheep, that is to say, they will have to have

1, 75,14,000 extra goats and sheep per year. This it is said, is not available in India. Then the butchers will have to find buyers for this enormous quantity of goats' meat or mutton the price of which, according to

the figures given at p.12 of the Expert Committee's Report, is very much higher than that of beef. Poorer people may afford to buy beef occasionally but goats' meat Or mutton will be beyond their reach and con-

sequently there will not be a market for sale of the meat of so many goats and sheep and the butchers will have to reduce the number of goats and sheep for purposes of slaughter and that will reduce their income

to a negligible figure. Further, what will they do with the skins of so many goats, and sheep ? They will not have ready sale in the market as hides. of co,ys and buffaloes have, for the latter are used in the manufac-

ture of. boots, shoes, suit cases, belts and other leather goods while the.skins of goats and sheep will be. useless S.C.R. for such purpose. The same considerations will apply r9ss

to the guts. There is, therefore, no escape, say learned Mohd. Hanif counsel for the petitioners from the inevitable conclu- Quareshi sion that a total ban on the slaughter of all· animals

v. belonging to the species of bovine cattle will bring The State of Bihar about a total prohibition of the business and occupa- tion of the butchers (Kasais). Clause (6) of Art. 19, no

Das c. f. doubt, protects the operation of the existing laws in so far as they impose and do not prevent the State from making any law imposing, in the interest of the gene- ral public, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of

the right conferred by Art. 19(l)(g). But restrictions, they say, cannot extend to total prohibition and refer- ence is made to the observations to be found in some of the decisions of this Court. The contention is that the

State may regulate but cannot annihilate a business which. a citizen has a right to carry on. The rival contention is thus formulated: The dictionary meaning of the word " butcher " is " slaugh-

terer of animals for food, dealer in meat". It is one of the three well-known occupations included in the homely phrase, " the butcher, the baker, the candle- stick maker". 'The expression" butcher", as popularly

understood now, has no reference to any particular animal. The term is now applicable to any person who slaughters any animal for food. Taken in this larger sense, the facts alleged in the petitions do not,

according to learned counsel for the respondents, indicate that any of the impugned Acts has the effect of completely stopping the petitioners' businesses. They seek to illustrate their point thus : Take the case

of piece-goods merchants. · Some may deal in country made piece-goods and others may import and sell piece-goods manufactured, say, in England or Japan. Some may deal in dhotis and saris and others may

confine their activities to the purchase anti sale of long cloth or other varieties of piece-goods. They are, however, all piece-goods merchants. Suppose in the interest of our indigenous textile industry and to

protect the best interests of the general public it becomes necessary to stop the import of fore,ign cloth. altogether. Such stoppage will not prevent any cloth [1959] '958 merchant f~om carrying on his trade or business as

cloth merchant, for he can still deal in cloth and piece- M olid. Ha1uf Quamhi goods manu actured in India. Will any piece-goods v. merchant, whose business was only to import foreign

The State of Bihar piece-goods for sale in India, be heard to complain that the stoppage of import of foreign cloth has Da> c. J. completely prevented him from carrying on business

as a piece goods merchant and, therefore, such stoppage of import of foreign cloth being more than a mere restriction .violates his fundamental right under Art. 19(l)(g)? Where, they ask, will the argument

c lead us ? Suppose that the import of one particular variety of piece-goods, say saris, is stopped but import of dhotis and all other varieties of piece-goods are allowed. On a reasoning at par with that urged in

the last case-should not a dealer who imports only that variety of piece-goods the import of which' has been stopped be entitled to say that his business has been completely stopped ? Suppose the State in the

interest of Khadi and cottage industries imposes a ban on the manufacture or sale of cloth of a very fine count, will a merchant who deals only in fine cloth be entitl- ed to say that as he deals only in fine cloth, the ban

haR completely prohibited the carrying on of his busi- ness? The truth of the matter, they submit, is that the ban on the import of foreign cloth or on the manu- facture of cloth of very fine count is only a restriction

imposed on the piece-goods business, for the ban affects one or :more of the segments of that business but leaves the other segments untouched. . There is, therefore, only some restriction imposed on piece-goods

merchants in that they cannot deal in certain kinds of piece-goods, but they are not wholly prevented from carrying on piece-goods business. The position, they say, is the same in the case of butchers (Kasais)." The

butchers' bustness, they point out, has several seg- ments and a ban on one segment may be complete prohibition of the activities of that segment, for restric- tion is complete as far as it extends, but in the larger

context of the butchers' business such a ban,· they &ubmit, operates only as a restriction. Far less, it is said, can a dealer in hides, complain that the ban S.C.R. imposed on the slaughter of cattle and buffaloes

I958 prevent him from carrying on his business as a hide merchant, for he can still carry on his business in Mohd. Hanif Quareshi fallen hides. Indeed the statistics collected in the

v. l~eport of Marketing of Hides in Intlia, Second Edition, The State of Bihar p. 9, show that the percentage of fallen hides to the total cattle population is 8.8 whereas the percentage

Das c. f. of slaughtered hides to the total cattle population is 1.4. The same argument has been advanced regarding gut merchants and other dealers in subsidiary things. It is not necessary for us to dilate upon or to express

any opinion on the rival contentions as abstract pro- positions. The matter has to be dealt with objectively. What do the Acts actually provide ? In Uttar Pradesh the petitioners can freely slaughter buffaloes (male or

female adults or calves) and sell their meat for food. It is• also open to them to slaughter goats ,and s4eep and sell the meat. Therefore, so far as the butchers of Uttar Pradesh are concerned, there is obviously no

total prohibition of their occupation but only some restrictions have been imposed on them in respect of one part of their occupation, namely, the slaughter of cows, bulls, bullocks, and calves of cows.

In Madhya Pradesh the Act, it is true, totally forbids the slaµghter of cows including bulls, bullocks and cows but perll!its the slaughter of buffaloes (male or female adults or calves) under certain conditions.

Therefore, in Madhya !Pradesh also there is no law totally prohibiting the carrying on of the business of a butcher. In Bihar there is, no doubt, a total ban against the slaughter of all animals belonging to the

species of bovine cattle which includes buffaloes (male or female adults or calves) but it is still possible for the butchers of Bihar to slaughter goats and sheep and sell goats' meat and mutton for food.

As will be seen hereafter the total ban on the slaugliter of bulls, bullocks, buffaloes (male or female adults or calves) irrespective of their age or_ usefulness is, in our view,

not a reasonable restriction imposed on the butchers (Kasais) in the interest of the general public and that being, therefore, void, no question can arise, even iu. [1959] ' 958 Bihar, of any total prohibition of the rights of ·butchers Mohd. Ha>1if

to carry on their occnpatioh or business. · In this view Quareshi of the matter we need express no final opinion on the Th s .v. 'f B"h vexed question as to whether restrictions permissible 1~ ' ••under cl. (6) of Art.'19 may extend to total prohibition. Das c. J.

. That question: was left open by this. Court in Saghi1· Ahmed v. '/.'he State of U. P. and others (1) and in The State of Bombay v. R. Jf. D. Chamarbaugwala (') and in the view we have taken on the facts and construc-

tion of the several Acts under consideration, does not call for an answer _in disposing of these :petitions. The question that calls for an· answer from us is. whether these restrictions are reasonable in the

interests of the general public.· Clause (6) of Art. 19 protects a law which imposes in the interest of the general public reasonable re~tric­ tions on the exercise of the right · confeiTed by sub.

cl. (g) of cl. (1) of Art. 19. Quite obviously it is left tO the court, in case of dispute, to determine the reason. ableness of the restrictions imposed by the law. In determining that question the court, we conceive, can-

not proceed on a general notion of what is reasonable in the abstract or even on a consideration of what is reasonable from the point of view of the person or persons on whom the restrictions· are imposed. The

right conferred by sub-cl. (g) is expressed in general language and if there had been no qualifying provision like cl. (6), the right so conferred would have been all absolute one. To the person who ·has this right any

·restriction will be irksome and Iimy well be regarded by him as unreasonable. But the question cannot be decided'on that basis. 'Vhat the court has to do is to consider whether· the restrictions imposed are

reasonable in the interests of the general public. . In the State of. Madms v. V. G. Ro:w (') this court has laid dO\vn the test of reasonableness in the followihg terms: " It is important in this context t.q. bear ih 1i1iiid

that the test of reasonableness, wherever prescribed, sl).on1d be applied to each individual statute impug1ied, (1) [1955J 1. S.C.R. 707, 724. . (2f[1957] S:C:R. 874. . .. (~) [1952] S.C.R. 591, 607.

S.O.R. · and no abstract standard, or general pattern, of reason- z958 ableness can be laid dowi1 as applicable to all cases. d Mohd. Hanif The nature of the right alleged to have been infringe ,

Quareshi the underlying purpose of the restrictions imposed, the v. extent and. urgency of the evil sought to be remedied The State of Bihar thereby, the disproportion of the imposition, the pre-

vailing conditions at the time, should all enter into the Das c. I· judicial .verdict. In evaluating such elusive factors and forming their own conception of what is reason- able, in all the circumstances of a given case, it is

inevitable that the social philosophy and the scale of values of the judges participating in the decision should play an important part, and the limit to their interference with legislative judgment in such cases

can only be dictated by their sense of responsibility and self-restraint and the sobering reflection that the Constitution is meant not only for people of their way of thinking but for all, and that tho majority of the

elected representatives of the people have, in autho- rising the imposition of the restrictions, considered them to he reasonable." These observations have been adopted by this Court

in later cases, e.g., The State of West Bengal v. Subodh Gopal Bose (1) and Ebrahim, Vazir Mavat v. The State of. Boinbay (2). In this connection it will also be well to remember the observation of ~Iahajan J. in The

State of Bihar v. Maharajadhiraj Sfr Kaineshwar Singh of Dharbnngha Ci), namely, that "the legislature is the best judge of what is good for the community, by whose suffrage it comes into existence …. ". This should be the proper approach for the court but the ultimate

responsibility for determining the validity of the law must rest with the court and the court must not shirk that solemn duty 'cast on it by the Constitution. We have, therefore, to approach the problem now before

us in the light of the principles laid down by this Court. The avowed object of each of the impugned Acts is to ensure the preservation, protection, and improve- ment 01' the cow and her progeny. ·This solicitude

(1) [1954) S.C.R. 587, 627. (2) [1954] S.C.R 933, ~49-950. (3) (195·•] S.C.R. 889, 941. [1959] '958 a.rises out of the appreciation of the usefulness of cattle in a predominantlv. agricultural societv. Early Aryans

Mohd. Hanfj .J Quareshi recognised its importance as one of the most indispen- v. sable adjuncts of agriculture. It would appear that in The state of Bihai Vedic times animal flesh formed the staple food of the people. This is attributable to the fact that the cli-

Das c. J. mate in that distant past was extremely cold and the Vedic Aryans had been a pastoral people before they settled down as agriculturists. In Rg. Vedic times goats, sheep, cows, buffaloes and even horses were

slaughtered for food and for religious sacrifice and their flesh used to be offered to the Gods. Agni is called the " eater of ox or cow " in Rg. Veda (VIII. 43, 11). The slaying of a great ox (Mahoksa) or a "great

Goat" (Mahaja) for the entertainment of a distinguish- ed guest has been enjoined in the Satapatha Brahmana (Ill. 4. 1~2). Yagnavalkya also expresses a similar view (Vaj 1. 109). An interesting account of

those early days will be found in Rg. Vedic Culture by Dr. A. C. Das, Ch. 5, pp. 203-5, and in the History of Dharmasastras (Vol. II, Part II) by P. V. Kane at pp. 772-773. Though the custom of slaughtering of

– cows and bulls. prevailed during the Vedic period, nevertheless, even in the Rg. Vedic times there seems to have grown up a revulsion of feeling against the custom. . The cow gradually came to acquire a special

sanctity and was called " Aghnya" (not to be slain). There was a school of thinkers amongst the Rsis, who set their face against the custom of killing such useful animals as the cow and the bull.. High praise was

bestowed on the cow as will appear from the following verses from Hg. Veda, Book· VI, Hymn XX VIII (Cows) attributed to the authorship of Sage Bhardvaja : "1. The kine have come and brought good for-

tune; let them rest in t!ie cow-pen and be happy near us. Here let them stay prolific, many coloured, and yield through many morns their milk for Indra. 6. 0 cows, ye fatten e'en the worn and wasted,

and make the unlovely beautiful to look on. Pros.per my house, ye with auspicious voices, your power is glorifie:J. in our assemblies. c S.C.R. 7. Crop goodly pasturages and be prolific ; drink

pure sweet water at good drinking places. Never be thief or sinful man ymu master, and Mnhd. Hanif Qua res hi may the dart of Rudra still avoid you." v. (Translation by Ralph Griffith).

Verse 29 of Hymn 1 Thi; State of Bina, in Book X of Atharva Veda forbids cow slaughter in the following words : Das c. J. "29. The slaughter of an innocent, 0 Kritya, is an awful deed, Slay not cow, horse, or man of ours."

Hymn 10 in the same Book is a rapturous glorification of the cow: "30. The cow is Heaven, the cow is Earth, the cow is Vishnu, Lord of life, The Sadhyas and the Vasus haYe drunk the out-

pourings of the cow. 34; Both Gods and mortal men depend for life and being on the cow. She hath become this universe; all that the sun surveys is she. " P. V. Kane argues that in the times of the Rg. Veda

only barren cows, if at all, were killed for sacrifice or meat and cows yielding milk were held to be not fit for being killed. It is only in this way, according to him, that one can explain and reconcile the apparent

conflict between the custom of killing cows for food and the high praise bestowed on the cow in Rg. Vedic times. It would appear that the protest raised against the slaughter of cows greatly increased in volume till

the custom was totally abolished in a later age. The change of climate perhaps also make the use of beef as food unnecessary and even injurious to health. Gradually cows became indicative of the wealth of the

owner. The Neolithic Aryans not having been acquaint- ed with metals, there were no coins in current use in the earlier stages of their civilisation, .hut as they were eminently a pastoral people almost every family

possessed a sufficient number of cattle and some of them exchanged them for the necessaries of their life. The value of cattle (Pasu) was, therefore, very great with tne early Rg. Vedic Aryans.

The ancient Rom- ans also used the word pecus or pecu (pasu) in the sense of wealth or money. The .English words, SUPREME COURT .REPORTS [195!)] '958 "pecuniary " and " impecunious'', are derived from

the Latin root peens or peen, originally meaning cattle. ·2\f ohd. Ii aiirf rl'h f l Quamhi o possession o catt e in those days denoted wealth v. and a man was considered rich or poor according to

Tho State of Bihar the large or small number of cattle that he owned. li1 the Ramayana King Jan1ika's wealth ·\vas described Dus c. J. by reforcnce to the large number of herds that he

owned. It appears that the cow was gradually raised to the status of divinity. Kautilya's Arthasastra has a special chapter (Ch. XXIX) dealing with the "sµper- intendent of cows" and the duties of the owner of

cows are also referred to in Ch. XI of Hindu Law in its sources hy Ganga Nath Jha. ·There can be no gainsaying the fact that the Hindus in general hold the cow in great reverence and· the idea of the slaugh,

ter of cows for food ·is repugnant to their notions· and this sentiment has in the past even led to comn"mnal riots. It is also a faqt. that after the recent partition of the country this agitation against the slaughter of

cows has been forth er intensified. W h~le we agree th!tt the constitutional question before us cannot be decided on grounds of mere sentiment, however passion- ate it may be, we, nevertheless, think that it has .to

be taken into consideration, though only 11s one of many clements, in arriving at a judicial verdict as to the reasonableness of the restrictions. Cattle in India, it is said, has a treble rnle to play,

namely, (i) to produce milk for food, (ii) hulls for draught and (iii) manure. for agriculture. It is neccs- sary to advert to the arguments advanced under each head. According to the 1951 census there were

15,60,00,000 heads of cattle and 4,00,00,000 of buffa- loes making a total of 19,60,00,000 or roughly 20,00,00,000 of animals belonging .to the species of bovine cattle. In India there are 123 heads of cattle

including lmlfaloes per square. mile and,43 heads to every 100 persons. Out of the total cattle population of 15,60,00,000 and buffalo population of 4,00,00,000 there were in Bihar 1,52,97,000 cattle and 33,16,000

buffaloes, in Madhya Pradesh 1,48,58,000 hends of .cattle and 26,00,000 buffaloes and in Uttar Pradesh 2,35,13,000. heads of cattle and 92,50,000 buffaloes . S.0.R. GG5 The toth.l distribut.ion of cattle and buffaloes, accord;

ing to age,' s~·x and work, was as follows:- Mohd. Ha1iif 11'1 ales Cattle H4faloes Quareshi :Breeding bulls 6,52,000 vVorking bullocks ti,88,18,000 3,06,000 T'' v • . t·e·;,· 60,:36,000 · '" ,,fate o1 . 1 a•

Bulls and bullocks over three years not in use for breed- . ing· and work, i e., useless. Young stock under one year. Young stock one to three ' years of age. Total Females Breeding CO\\:R, i.e., cows, over

· 3 yiJars kept for breeding or milk production. Cows over 3 vears used for . 27,35,000 97,63,000 1,22,57,000 4,66,000 28,70,000 23,84,000 8,42,25,000 1,20,02,000 4,6 7 ,23,000 • work.

23,17 ,000 2,10,08,000 .5,34,000 Cows over 3 · years not in use for work or breeding pµrposes, i. e., useless. 12,02,000 9:3,05,000 – 3,15,000 42,02,000 Young stock over 1 year. Y,6.ung stock 1 to 3 years of

age. 1,25,44,000 52,83,000 Total 7,20,91,000 3,13,42,000 .(}rand total 15,63,16,000 4,:33,44,000 As .stated. in the Report on the Marketing of Cattle in India isslrnd by the Directorate of Marketing and

Inspection, Ministry of Pood and Agriculture, Govern- ~neiit of India, 1956, the proportion of males in cattle i('l a little more than half of the total cattl~ population whilst in the 'case of buffaloes, females predoniinate

and are about 3/4 of the total. Por agricultural purposes male cattle are generally preferred for their compara-. tive lirrhtness and active nature. Of the total 39,57,080 unserviceable heads of cattle in India there

were 5,35,000 in Bihar, 1,55,000 in Madhya Pradesh ~nd l 184lQOO iri. Vttc;1.r Pp;i.desh. · Of the. tota.l 71811000 Das C.·j. [1959] x958 unserviceable buffaloes there were 1,20,000 in Bihar,

15,000 in Madhya Pradesh and 28,000 in Uttar Mohd. Hanif Pradesh. Quareshi _ v. Although, accordmg to the census figures given n, stat< of Biliar above, our cattle wealth is, in number, the highest in the world the milk production is perhaps the lowest.

Das c. J. According to the figures given in the Second Five Year Plan, at the beginning of the First Fiv!) Year Plan the milk output was over 1,80,00,000 tons. The average yield of milk per cow in Ii1dia was 413 pounds which

is about the lowest of any country iti the world as against 8,000 pounds in the Netherlands, 7,000 pounds· in Australia, 6,000 pounds in Sweden and 5,000 pounds· in the U.S.A. Out of the total yield she-buffaloes give

54% while cows give only 42%. Buffalo milk is richer in fat, 6 to 7% as compared to 4·5% of fat in the cow's milk. But cow's milk is richer in other importaut con- tents and is more easily digestible.

The average per • capita consumption of milk and milk products was \vorkecl out by t.he First Five Year Plan at 5·5 ounces,' i.e., about 2·5 chhataks or 1/6 of a seer per day, though

10 ounces are recommended by nutrition experts. In the 'B'acts and ]'igures about Bihar published in 1955 by ·the Department of Public Relations, the average annual milk yield is stated to be 620 lbs. per cow and

1,526 lbs. per buffalo-. · It is recognised in Human Nutrition vis-a-vis Animal Nutrition in India, a Memorandum prepared by the Nutrition Advisory Committee of the Indian Council of Medical Research

and the Animal Comni.ittee of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research that the performance of Indian milch animals, particularly of cows, is extremely poor and that from a mere economic point of view there

does not seem to be any justification for maintaining animals yielding 2 pounds of milk or less per day and perhaps these animals would better be eliminated. But, as the Memorandum also says, one should realise,

before such a drastic action is takei1, the consequences that may follow from the adoption of this policy, for if the animals giving 2 pounds or less of milk a.re con- . demned,as unsuitable it will mean elimination of more

than 90% of the' present day milch cows and loss of about 70,00,000 tons out of 97,001000 tons of annual c S.C.R. gross production of milk from this group, besides a r958 large number of bullocks that they will bear. Accord-

Mahd. Hanif ing to the table of the human food requirement recom- Quareshi mended by the Nutrition Advisory Committee of the v. Indian Council of Medical Research 10 ounces of milk The State of Bihar per adult unit per day is necessary to make up a

balanced diet. The total human population, accord- Das c. I· ing to 1951 census, was 35,68,00,000 which, at the current rate of increase, was eRtimated to have reach- ed the figure of 37,76,00,000 in 1956. Treating children

below 10 years of age as 0·83 of adult value, the total adult unit is calculated at 31,30,00,000. At the rate of 10 ounces of milk per adult per day we would require 3,23,00,000 tons of milk per annum. It is clear, there-

fore, that in India, where a large section of the popula- tion <lOnsists of vegetarians, there is a huge shortage in the supply of milk. Cows and other milch cattle, there- fore, are of very great value to this country.

If milk yielding capacity were the only consideration the comparatively smaller number of female buffaloes which produce 54% of the total milk supply of our country would obviously have deserved a far greater

preference over the cows in our estimation. But, as pointed out by Pandit Thakurdas Bhargava, there is another important consideration which is perhaps more important from the standpoint of human food

supply. It is the bullock that takes the largest share in meeting the power requirements for our agricultural production. Based perhaps on age old experience Indian agriculturists habitually prefer a cow bullock

to a buffalo bullock. As a result of the evolutionary process of trial and error, we find in this country about 10 cow bullocks for every buffalo bullock as is shown by_ the 1951 census figures set out above. If this

relative distribution is considered unavoidable for our crop production, we may expect no change in the existing ratio in the population of the two species unless . a. revolution can be brought about in our

method.s and practice of land cultivation. A.ccordihg to the Report on the Ma1•keting of Cattle in India, 1956, p. 22, animals are utilised in India unuer four. heads: (1) used for cultivating-6,54,.22,00.0 (2) usec\

SUPREME COURT .REPORTS [1959] for carting in urban areas-11,80,000 (3) used as pack animaLs-67,705 and (4) used in oil crushers, etc.- Mohd. Hanif 4,30,000, making up the total of 6,70,99,705. As

Qua1·eshi , v. against this we have, according to the 1951 census Th, s1.a1e of Biha• figures set out above, 5,88,18,000 working bullocks and 60,36,000 working he-buffaloes, aggregating to

Das c. J. 6,48,54,000. There is therefore a shortage of 22,45, 705 bullocks including buffaloes which presumably repre- . sent the dry cows and female buffaloes put to agricul- tural labour, as shown ill the Second :Five Year Plan

at pp. 281-282. It is true that tractors have begun to be used but they are still of a negligible number and for many years to come the country will have to depend upon animal power for her agricultural operations in

order to grow enough food for meeting the demands of the fast growing human population. In Uttar Pradesh, according to the 1951 census, there were 2,35,12,839 heads of cattle and 92,50,488 buffaloes, making a total

of a,27,63,327. The total area. of Uttar Pradesh was 7,22,78,809 acres out of which 4,92,30,120 acres were under cultivation. If a pair of bullocks can be taken on an average to cover 10 acres the total area under

cultivation will require 98,46,000 bullocks. The 1951 census figures show 1,15,00,000 of bullocks which are slightly in excess of the number of bullocks required for the purposes of cultivation only. Indeed both in

Uttar Pradesh and in Bihar, according to the First Five Year Plan, p. 247, there was a surplus of about 40,00,000 of bullocks while in the Punjab and Pepsu the number available was just adequate to meet

the demands. If, however, account is taken of the other purposes for which bullocks may be used, namely, for carting or as pack animals or for working oil crush- ers or drawing water from the wells for irrigation

purposes, thj' total available animal power will fall short of the requirements. In addition to that we have to keep in view the necessity for further expansion of the cultivated area to meet the food requirements of

the fast growing population, and in that case the deficit will go up still further. In Bihar, accoraing to the Facts and Figures, 1956, the total number of animal I!opulation .of t!J.e bovine species were:-

s:c.R. Cattle Cows and oxen (adults) Cows and oxen {young stock) Buffaloes 1,15,64,310. 37,33,166 Buffaloes (adult) 23,78,293 Buffaloes {young stock) 9,37,582 The number of working cattle and buffaloes works out

to one for every 6 acres of net area under cultivation. It follows, therefore, that our working animals are perhaps just about sufficient to supply the power to keep our agricultural operations up to the necessary

standard, but the demand for food is growing and more lands will have to be brought under cultivation and we shall require a far larger number of these animals. T)lere are in India, 6,50,000 breeding bulls and

3,10,000 breeding buffaloes. There are 4,63,40,000 bre- eding cows and 2,09,90,000 breeding buffaloes. Accord- ing to the First :ll'ive Year Plan, p. 27 4, approximately 750 farm bred bulls of known pedigree are distributed

annually by the Government in different States for developing and improving the draught as well as the milch breeds. Besides there are some approved bulls belonging to private owners. But the existing number

of private bulls meets less than o· 15'Yo of the total requirements of the country. According to the Report on the Marketing of Cattle in India, p. 9, service bulls number approximately 6,52,000 or about o· 4% of the

total cattle in the countrv. In the absence of an arrangement to castrate or" remove the inferior bulls before a pedigree bull is 100ated in an area, the progeny of the pedigree bulls have access to scrub, which

nullifies the efficiency achieved in the finit gene~ation. It is, therefore, clear that t.he breeding bulls (cattle and buffaloes) are insufficient to meet the requirements. It is true that the practice of artificial insemination has

been introduced in some centres but for many years to come Indian animal husbandry will have to depend 011 th~ ordinary breeding· bulls. We are in short supply of them. _ The third utility of these animals {cattle and buffa~

loes) is the dung. The First Five Yel}r Pl~n at p. 255 Mrih4. Hanif 'Q11aie<hi v. The State of Biha Das C. J. [1959] r958 records that 80,00,00,000 tons of dung are available per annum. 50% of this is used as fuel by culti-

llfolid. llanif h Quam/ii vators and t c other 50% is used as manure. lf suit- v. able supplies of fuel could be made available to the The s1a1e of lhhnr cultivators then the entire quantity of dung could be used for manure. It is doubtful, however, if the cnlti-

Da> c. J. vators would be in a position to pay for the fuel and utilise the entirety of the dung for manure. Cattle urine is also useful for the nitrogen, phosphates and potash contents in it. In terms of money the dung and the

urine will account for a large portion of the agricul- tural income in India. Indeed Pandit Thakurdas Bhargava appearing as ainicus curiae has claimed Rs. 63,00,00,000 per year as the contribution of the

dung of these animals to the national income. The discussion in the foregoing paragraphs clearly establishes the usefulness of the cow and her progeny. They sustain the health of the nation by giving them

the life giving milk which is so essential an item in a scientifically balanced diet. The working bullocks are indispensable for our agriculture, for they supply power more than any other animal. Good breeding

bulls are necessary to improve the breed so that the quality and stamina of the future cows and working bullocks may increase and the production of food and milk may improve and be in abundance.

The dung of the animal is cheaper than the artificial manures and is extremely useful. In short, the backbone of Indian agriculture is in a manner of speaking the cow and her progeny. Indeed Lord Linlithgow hafl truly

said-" The cow and the working bullock h11,ve on their patient back the whole structure of Indil n agri- culture. " (Report on the Marketing of Cattle in India, p. 20). If, therefore, we are to attain sufficiency in the production of food, if we are to maintain the nation's

health, the efficiency and breed of our Cattle popula- tion must be considerably improved. To attain the above objectives we must devote greater attention to the preservation, protection and improvement of the stock

and organise our agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines. \Ve have, therefore, to examme 'the provisions of the impugned Acts and r S.C.R. ascertain whether they help in achieving the sai<i

r958 objectives, or are calculated to hinder ihat process. Mohd. lianif In that context all the considerations above alluded to Qu1Jreslti must enter the judicial verdict and if the impugned

v: Acts further the aforesaid purpose then only can the The State of Bih1tr restrictions imposed by the impugned Acts be said to be reasonable in the interest of the general public.

Das c. J. 'Ve turn now to the other side of the picture. In examining the conspectus of the problem the Court cannot overlook the fact, emphasised in the petition, that the petitioners and a very large number of simi-

larly situated persons, even if their 11umber does not come up to the figure mentioned in the petition, are butchers (Kasais) by occupation and make an income of about Rs. 150 to Rs. 200 per month and that they

will be seriously affected, if not completely thrown out of ocriupation, by the impugned Acts. It is true, for reasons hereinbefore stated, that they cannot complain that they have been completely deprived of their occu-

pation or business but the enactments, if valid, will compel them to make fresh arrangements for the supply of animals which are permitted to be slaughter- ed for food. Theoretically it may not be impossible

for them to do so, but in practice it is more than likely to cause considerable inconvenience to them and may even involve extra expenses for them. The hide mer- chants, who, they say in the petition, have made their

arrangements for the supply to them of hides of slaughtered animals up to 95 % of their requirements, may find it difficult to make fresh arrangements for procuring fallen hides. The same observations may

be made about the gut merchants. The immediate effect of the operation of these Acts is to cause a serious dislocation of the petitioners' business without any compensatory benefit.

In Saghir Ahmad v. The State of U. P. (1), at p. 727 this Court observed, with respect to the persons engaged in running buses for carrying passengers : "One thing, however, in our opinion, has a decided

bearing on the question of reasonableness and that is the immediate effoct which the legislation is.likely to· (1) (r955] r S.C.R. 707, 724. [1959] ' 1958 prodnco. Hundreds of citizens are earning their liveli-

.hood bv oarryinir on this business on various routes Mohd .. Hanif '–' Q•w<'i,; within the State of Uttar Pradesh. Although they v. carry on the business only with the aid of permits,

TkState of B;/wnvhich are granted to them by the authorities under the Motor Vehicles Act, no compensation has been v., c. J. allowed to them under the Statute. " Similar inconvenience may easily be supposed to have

befallen the petitioners and others of their class and the immediate and possibly adverse impact of the im- pugned Acts on their occupation or business must, therefore, be taken into account as one of the impor-

tant factors in judging the reasonableness or otherwise of the said Acts. There is also no getting away from the fact that beef or buffalo meat is an item of food for a larg,e sec-

tion of the people in India and in particular of the State of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Table 11 at p. 24 of the Report on the Marketing of Cattle in India shows that in the year 1948 the annual demand for

cattle and buffaloes for purposes of food was: 18,93,000 heads of cattle and 6,09,000 buffaloes. These figures indicate that beef and buffalo flesh arc used for food by a large section of the people in India.

l t is well. known that poorer sections of Muslims, Christians and members of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes consume beef and buffalo flesh. There is also a limited demand for beef by the foreign population. Buffaloes yield

comparatively coarse and tough meat of inferior quality and consequently the demand for beef is greater than that for buffalo flesh. :Further the price of the buffalo flesh is 20 to 40% less than that of beef.

The prices of beef and buffalo "meat are much cheaper than that of mutton or goat's meat and consequently beef and buffalo flesh come within the reach of the poorer peopl~ perhaps for a day or two in the week.

According to the figures given in the Report of the Expert Committee at p. 12, in 1938 in Bombay the prices were Rs. 0-3-9 per pound of beef, Rs. 0-2-0 per pound of buffalo flesh and Rs. 0-5-6 for mutton

·and goats' flesh. In 1950 these prices went up respec. tively to Rs. 0-12-0, Rs. 0-11-0 and Rs. 1-3-0. r' S.C.R. The comparatively low prices of beef, and buffalo flesh~ which are nearly half of that of mutton or goats' flesh,

h M ohtf, Hanif is the main reason for their demand. Habit is per aps Qiwresh~ secondary. Learned counsel for some of the petition" v. ers cited the case of the boys and girls residingin The State -0f.FJihai£ boar9.ing houses attached to the Anglo-Indian schools

where the only meat which the boarding school ail.tho.-: Das C.J:. rities can afford to supply as part of the diet. of the growing children is beef and that only on.a day or:tw.o in the week.

The Acts, if enforced, will prevent them from having even this little bit of nourishment: an~· amenity. It is true that after the partition of the country the Muslim population has decreased and

further that some Muslims may not habitually take beef or buffalo flesh, but even so a large section of the poorer people belonging to the Muslim, Christian .and Scheduled Castes communities do commme beef and

buffalo flesh. And this is not merely a matter of amenity . or luxury but is at any rate partially, a matter of necessity. Table VII set out at p. 32 of the Memorandum on Human Nutrition vis-a-vis Animal

Nutrition in India recommends one ounce of meat daily whereas the available quantity is much less and the attainable quantity under the new plan may be 1/3 ounce or a little more. Poorer people, therefore,

who can hardly afford fruit or milk or ghee are likely to suffer from malnutrition, if they are deprived of even one ounce of beef or buffalo flesh which may· sometimes be within their reach. This aspect of the

matter-must also be taken into account in assessing• the reasonableness of the provisions of the impugned. Acts. The number of cattle and buffaloes not fit for breed-· ing or working has already been set out. Further

particulars in detail are available from Appendices II and III to the Report on the Marketing• of Cattle in India. The figures given there show that according to the 1951 census the total number of unsei·viceable

male cattle was 27,35,000 and that of female cattle was 1'2,02,000. Out of these there were in Bihar 2,93,000 male and 2,42,000 female, in Madhya Pradesh, J,24,000 male.aJJ.d 31,000 female and i? lJttar Pradesh

(1959] 1,63,000 male and 21,000 female. The unserviceable buffaloes in the whole of India, according to 1951 cen- A-fohd. llanif Quamhi sus, were 7,81,000 out of which 4,66,000 were males

v. and 3,15,000 were females. Out of the total there The State of Bihar were in Bihar 61,000 male buffaloes and .59,000 fem;i,Je buffaloes, in Madhya Pradesh 10,000 11111le ti.nd 5,000

Das c. f. female, in Uttar Pradesh 16,000 male and 12,000 female. According to the Fi1°Kt Five Year Pla,11, p. 273, the overall estimates made by the Cattle Utili- sation Committee show that about 10 % of the cattle

population in India or roughly 1,14,00,000 adults were unserviceable. or unpl'oductive. The Report of the Cattle Preservation and Development Committee also put the figure of old, decrepit and unproductive cattle

at 10% of the total popufation. Pandit Thakurdas Bhargava does not accept the correctness of these figures. It is difficult to find one's way out of the labyrinth of figures and it will be futile for us to

attempt to come to a figure of unserviceable agricultu- ral animals which may even be approximately correct. For .our purpose it will suffice to say that there is a fairly large number of cattle and buffaloes which are

not of any use for breeding or working purposes. The position may be accepted as correctly summed up at p. 274 of the :First Five Year Plan where it is stated, inter alia, that there is a deficiency of good milch cows

and working bullocks and that there exists a surplus of useless or inefficient animals. The presence of a large number of useless and in- efficient cattle in the midst of the good ones affect our

agriCultural economy in two ways. In the first place- and this is the crux of the matter-this surplus stock is pressing upon the scanty fodder and feed resources of the country and is an obstacle to making good the

deficit. As pointed out by the expert Committee Report at p. o9 the greatest handicap in improving our cattle wealth is the lack of resources in feeding them. Any effort to improve cattle will fail unless

they are properly fed. 'fhe table set out on that very page of that Report records a deficiency of 6,oo;oo,OOO .tons, i. o., 33% in straw or Kadbi 10,40,00,000 tons, i.e., 13% in gre~n fodder and 2,65,20,000 tons, i. e.,

S.C.R; 70% in concentrates (i. e., oil cakes, bran, oil seeds, r958 maize, barley and gram, etc.). It is pointed out that Mohd. Hanif the figures shown against green fodder are not the

Quareshi quantities which are presently available but which v. can be made available if forest resources are fully The State of Biha~ tapped. According to this Report even if the forest

resources are fully utilised there will still be a defici- Das c. f. ency of 13% in the supply. The actual availability of this item is limited by the fact that green fodder is only1available during the monsoon months and much

of tliis is wasted by the lack of country-wide arrange- ments for its conservation. The estimated require- ments and the present supply of food stuffs for animals is also given in Table V at p. 23 of the Memorandum

on Human Nutrition vis-a-vis Animal Nutrition in India which tallies with and is more or less about the same as those given in the Report of the Expert Committee above referred to. Table V also shows a

deficiency of 6,00,00,000 tons of straw or Kadbi 1,78,00,000 tons of green fodder. The shortage of concentrates, i. e., oil cakes, maize, barley, gram, cotton seed and bran vary between 8,50,000 to 71,17,000 tons.

According to the estimate given in the First Five Year Plan at p. 273 the quantity of fodder available is about 75% of requirements while availablB concentra- tes of feeds would suffice only for about 28% of the

cattle. The figures given at p. 24 of the report of the Gosamvardhan Enquiry Committee set up by the Uttar Pradesh Government are interesting. The total cattle ·and buffalo population in U ttar Pradesh is

estimated at 3,27,63,327. The scientific food require- ments of this total population, according to the Western standard, . are first set out. Then begins a· process of scaling down, for the above scale is con-

sidered to be somewhat lavish for our low sized village cattle. The Indian standard, according to this report, will require much less and the figures, according to Indian standards, are next set out. Evidently these

figures a!so show a very big gap be.tween requirements and the available quantities'. So the report says that even this may be reduced and what is significantly [1959] r958 described as the " critical limit " is then set out. It is not quite intelligible why an Indian cow should not

M~:~,::,nif require even an Indian standard of ration. Be that v. as it may, even for the " critical limit " the quantity The state of Bihar available is far too short. The gap between the critical limit and what is available is respectively

Das c. J. 1,80,00,000 tons of dry matter, 15,00,000 tons of protein and 28,61,70,00,000 therms. It is conceded that the requirements of mixed population of 3,27,63,327 heads of animals may be taken as repre-

senting 2,71,30,000 adult units and with the present available supply of straw, green feed and concentrates these adult units cannot be fully fed even on the critical limit standard. The available supply can

support only 1,59,20,000 adult units leaving 1,12,10,000 units unfed. It is recognised by this Report thii.t with an increase in cattle population and better prophy- lactic treatment against contagious diseases, the trend

of population will be towards an increase and the deficiency in nutrition will become still more pro- nounced. The remedy suggested is that attention be paid urgently towards the production of more fodder

from cultivated land and utilisation of all marginal and sub-marginal land for augmenting food and fodder sources. With a large population of animals in which the majority is not yielding adequate and prompt returns

to the owners, the animals are naturally allowed to fend for themselves and to subsist on whatever the agriculturist is able to provide from his scanty sources for the maintenance of his stock. Naturally, there-

fore, the problem of substantial precentage of unecono- mical cattle has cropped up along with that of stray, wild, old, diseased and uneconomical animals. These old and useless animals roaming about at pleasure in

search of food are a nuisance and a source of danger in the countryside. They grow wild and become a menace to the crop· production. As pointed out by the Report of the Expert Committee, the dan,ger was

actually seen by the members of that Committee in Pepsu where, it is significant to note, the slaughter is banned cqmpletely. S.C.R. The presence of a large number of old and useless

r95B animals also has a bad effect on the quality of the Mohd. Ha,iif breed. There is a tendency for this population to Quareshi multiply and bring into being progeny of a very v.

inferior kind which is bound to adversely affect the The Slate of Bihar production of milk or bullock power. It is absolutely necessary that this surplus cattle should be separated

Das c. J. from the good and robust animals and a total ban on slaughter of cattle and buffaloes will contribute towards worsening the present condition. The Cattle Preservation and Development Com-

mittee set up by the Government of India in 1948 at p. 47 of its l~eport recommended, as a panacea for the evil menace of useless cattle, a scheme for the establish- ment of cattle concentration camp for the old and

useless cattle. It is this scheme which subsequently came "to be known by the name of Gosadans. At pp. 48 and 49 are set out the estimates of cost of establishing and running a camp to house 2,000 cattle.

The non-recurring cost on land, cattle sheds, staff and servants' quarters is shown at Rs. 32,000 and the recurring cost, namely, salary of manager, stock-man, chaukidars 1md others on the establishment together

with allowances is shown at R,s. 13,000 per year and it is hoped that a sum of Rs. 5,000 will be derived from the sale of hides, manure, etc. According to the Report of the Expert Committee each Gosadhan

housing 2,000 heads of cattle would have to have 4,000 acres of land which would permit of a rotational and controlled grazing practice and provision has to be made for the surplus grass during the rainy season

to be preserved for the scarcity months. There should be thatched sheds for protection of the cattle agai.nst weather and wild animals and fodder is to be cultivat- ed on a small part of the 4,000 acres. By the end of

1954, when the Report of the Expert Comtnittee came to be made, the cost had gone up from what they were in 1948 when the Cattle Preservation and Develop- ment Committee Report had been made. The esti-

mated bost,, according to the Report of the Expert Committee, of establishing and running of a Gosadan . for 2,000 heads of cattle is shown as:. non-recurring [1959] , 95a Rs. 50,000, and recurring Rs. 25,000 per year. On

this basis the recurring cost alone will work out Mohd. Ha~if at Rs. 12•50 per head of cattle per annum for preserv- Qu•:~'"' ing useless cattle. The figures given in the Gosam- The 5 101,'01 Biha, vardhan Enquiry Committee's Report are interesting. Taking the total number of catties in Uttar Pradesh

Das c. J. not used for breeding or work at 1,83,276 in 1951, the State will require 91 Gosadans each with a housing capacity for 2,000 heads of cattle. Even taking one acre per animal instead of two acres per animal as

recommended by the Expert Committee Report, 91 Gosadans will require nearly 2,00,000 acres of land. The cost of 91 Gosadans will be non-recurring Rs. 45,50,000 and recurring Rs. 22,75,000 per annum.

It appears from the revised model for Gosadans for 500 heads of cattle to be run by the State Governments set out in Appendix II to the Proceedings of the 0F'ifth Annual General Meeting of the Central Council of

Gosamvardhan held at New. Delhi on February 21, 1957, that the non-recurring cost will be Rs. 39,000 and the recurring running cost will be Rs. 12,000. It is estimated that there will be an income of Rs. 2,500

from the sale of hides, etc. Allowing this, the net annual recurring cost will be Rs. 9,500 for 500 heads of .cattle which works out at Rs. 19 per head of cattle per annum. As regards Gosadans to be run by private

institutions, it is said in the same Appendix II that those institutions will be given a subsidy of Rs. 18 per head per annum out of which 75% would be contributed by the Centre and the remaining 25% by

the State. Thus for the preservation of the useless cattle the country will pay Rs. 19 or Rs. 18 per head of such useless cattle per annum, whereas our total national expenditure on education (Central and States

including local bodies) in 1955-1956 was only Rs. 4'9 per capita as against Rs. 104·6 per capita in the United Kingdom and Rs. 223•7 per capita in the United States of America and our target for 1957-1958 works out at

Rs. 5 per capita per annum. It will be noticed that in none of the schemes is even a pice provided for . fodder .• The idea evidently is that the cattle will be left there to fend for themselves on whatever grass or

S.C.R. other green foed they can get by grazing. If one remembers that though green fodder may be available in the monsoon months, there will be a dearth of them MoQhd. Hanif h d h

'11 t th .h uareshi m t e ry mont s, one w1 a once see at t e segre- gating of the cattle in the concentration camp will The state of Bil•ar only be to leave them to a fate of slow death. The

very idea that these animals should eke out their Das c. J. livelihood by grazing and that Gosadans should be located in out of the way places, appeared to the authors of the Memorandum on Human Nutrition

vis-a-vis Animal Nutrition at p. 47, to belie the humanitarian considerations on the basis of which the scheme was conceived. Theory a.part, the Gosadan scheme has been tried and the result is not at all encouraging. The First

:Five Year Plan, obviously as an experimental measure, provided for the establishment of 160 Gosadans each housing 2,000 heads of cattle, at a cost of about Rs. 97,00,000. The Planning Commission recognised

that these measures would touch only the fringe of the problem and the success of the movement would depend on the amount of public support, especially from charitable institutions that it received. The sheer

weight of the figures of expenses compelled the Gosamvardhan.Enquiry Committee to recognise that if the unwanted and uneconomic cows and their progeny have to be effectively saved from slaughter,

the responsibility had to be shared by the individual, the community and so on, for it would be utterly impracticable to expect that the burden of collection of such animals from villages and transporting them

to the Gosadans would be within the exclusive means and competence of the State. That Committee certainly expected the State to share a particular por- tion of the expenditure which legitimately fell in its

sphere of respon1::1ibility, but the Committee felt, and said so in so many words, that by far the most sub- stantial portion of the responsibility should rest on the owners and the community itself for it was but equit-

able to expect that if the cow had to be really saved from slaughter the cost on this account .should b.e equitably borne by the people and the State. This [1959] z95B part of the Report of the Gosamvardhan Enquiry

Mohd. Han;/ Committee reads like wishful thinking and amounts to Quamhi only hoping for the best. When the conscience of the v. individual or the community did not prevent the Hindu

The State of B;ha, owner from selling his dry cow to the butcher for a paltry sum of R.s. 30 to Rs. 40 per head, •.vhen the Das c. J. Hindu sentiment for the divinity and sanctity attri-

buted to the cow has to be propped up by legislative compulsion, when according to its own Report at p. 41 the Dharmada and Brit collected by the Hindu busi- nessmen on each commercial transaction ostensibly

for the benefit of the cow is not made available in full and finally when Goshalas have had to be closed down for want of funds and public support, when the country cannot spend more than Rs. 5 per capita per annum on

the education of the people, it seems to be somewhat illogical and extravagant, bordering on incongntity, to frame a scheme for establishment of Gosadans for preserving useless cattle at a cost of Rs. 19 or Rs. 18

per head per annum and which will, for its success, admittedly have to depend on the same elusive and illl!sory public support or 75% subsidy from the Central Government. What has been the result of the experiment ?

According to the Report of the Expert Committee since the ]'irst ]'ive Year Plan only 17 Gosadans had been started in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Pepsu, Coorg, Bhopal, Kutch, Vindhya Pradesh, Tripura and Saurashtra put

together. Not even one of these 17 establishments is fully stocked. There are only about 5,293 animals in these 17 Gosadans instead of 34,000. According to the Gosamvardhan Enquiry Committee's Repo~t, only

two Gosadans had been established up to the date of that Report in Uttar Pradesh. The Second Five Year Plan (p. 283) shows that out of the 160 Gosadans for which provisid'n had been made in the First ]'ive Year

Plan, only 22 Gosadans had been established. Accord- ing to the Facts and ]'igures about Bihar, 1955, p. 88, three Gosadans had been established at Berwadih, Nirmali and Monghyr where there were about• 700

uneconom~c animals at that time instead of 6,000 which should have been there as per the estimated capacity for .each ·Gosadan. S.C.R. What, in the view of the several committees, is the

r958 conclusion ? According to the Memorandum on Human Mohd. Hanif Nutrition vis-a-vis Animal Nutrition in India, p. 4, the Quareshi present scheme of establishing Gosadans for segregat-

v. ing old and useless animals can serve only a limited Tiie State of Bihar purpose and if extended countrywide, it is likely to hinder rather than help the problem of disposing of

Das c. I· the surplus animals. At p. 47 the authors of this Memorandum appear to have felt that in advocating the adoption of Gosadan Scheme on a countrywide basis, sufficient consideration had not been given to its

practical aspects. It is pointed out that according to the present estimate the total number of useless animals is four times the number the Second ]'ive Year Plan had estimated and that consequently

havjng regard to the huge size of our cattle population the existing number of the useless section would remain unchanged for many years to come and that a sum of Rs. 3,04,00,000 will be required only for pounding such

animals. The Expert Committee's Report is quite defi- nite and emphatic. Paragraph 133 of that Report at p. 62 clearly expresses the opinion that Gosadans do not offer a solution to the problem. To house and

maintain all these animals, thousands of Gosadans on lakhs of acres of land would be needed. In addition to the hugenon-redurring expenses, a very high recur- ring annual expenditure would have to be incurred.

_In view of this and in view of the indifferent response from the States in setting up Gosadans, the Expert Committee came to the conclusion that the Gosadan scheme was not likely to offer any solution for the

problem of useless cattle and that it would be far more desirable to utilise the limited resources of the country to increase the efficiency of the useful cattle. The Report of the Cattle Preservatioq and. Develop-·

.ment Committee did not recommend the immediate total . ban on the slaughter of all cattle. They recommended the establishment of concentration camP.s, later on euphemistically called Gosadans, and

though total ban was the ultimate objective, it did not, for the moment, prohibit the slaughter of animals over the age of 14 years and of anin!als ?f any age· [1959] x958 permanently unfit for work or breeding owing to age

or deformity. In para. 134 of the Expert Committee's Mohd. 11 an if QuamM Report at p. 6 it is stated clearly that the total ban v. on the slaughter of all cattle would not be in the best

The State of Bihar interests of the country as it is merely a negative and not a positive approach to the problem. They consider Das c. J. that a constructive approach to the problem will be to

see that no useful animal is slaughtered and that the country's resources are fully harnessed to produce better and more efficient cattle. Neither the First Five Year Plan nor the Second Five Year Plan accepted the

idea of a total ban on the slaughter of cattle. Indeed, according to the Second Five Year Plan, a total ban will help the tendency for the number of surplus cattle to increase . and, in their view, a total ban on the

slaughter of all cows, calves and other milch iJ-nd draught cattl" will defeat the very .object of the direc- tive principles embodied in Art. 48 of the Constitution. We find from para. 6 on p. 283 of the Second :Five.

Year Plan that the Gosadan scheme did not make any real or satisfactory progress and that altogether 22 Gosadans housing only 8,000 cattle had been establish- . ed by the States up to the date of that document and

even then many of the States had encountered difficulty in securing the areas of land needed for their opera- tions. The Planning Commission considered that it would be impossible to establish enough of these

Gosadans and they reached the conclusion that in defining the scope of the ban on the slaughter of cattle the States should take a realistic view of the fodder resources available in the country and the extent to

which they can get the co-operation of voluntary or- ganisations to bear the main responsibility for main- taining unserviceable and unproductive cattle with a measure of assistance from the Goverment and general

support from • the people. As already stated, the Memorandum on Human Nutrition vis-a-vis Animal Nutrition at p. 4 expressed the view that the Gosadan scheme can serve only a limited purpose and, if extend-

ed countrywide, was likely to hinder rather than ·help the problem of disposing of the surplus animals, apart fyom the huge ini~ial cost. A large concentration of S.C.R. useless animals within a restricted area, the authors of

z9ss that Memorandum feared, might lead to considerable Mohd. Hanif soil erosion due to overgrazing and there might be Quareshi every possibility of contagious and parasitic diseases

v. spreading from these animals to the surrounding area. The State of Biha~ It is only the Gosamvardan Enquiry Committee which had recommended an immediate total ban on the Das c. 1·

slaughter of all cattle, irrespective of age or sex. It should, however, be noted that even that Committee did not recommend such a total ban as a measure independent of all other considerations. Its recom-

mendation in this behalf was linked up with and was a part of a scheme which depended, for its success, on a variety of imponderable matters, like public enthu- siasm and support for the establishment

and maintenance of Gosadans in a high state of working efficiency, the capacity of the State to bring more lands under cultivation, reclamation of the jungle lands and the like. It may be noted also that although in s0me

of the States total ban has been imposed on the slaughter of cattle, many of the States have not con- sidered it necessary to impose such a blanket ban. Thus the Assam Cattle Protection Act, 1950, the

Bombay Animal Preservation Act, 1948, the West Bengal Animal Slaughter Control Act, 1950, the Hyderabad Slaughter of Animal Act, 1950, the Travancore-Cochin Notification permit slaughter of

cattle and buffaloes over specified years of age. Even the Madhya Pradesh Act, as originally enacted, did not place a total ban on the slaughter of all cattle. In earlier times there being enough of pastures and

smaller human and cattle population and restricted needs, it was possible to rear large and valuable herds and organise a system of balanced economy as far as agricultural development was concerned.

Thus, while the country was producing enough grain for the requirement of the human population there was an adequate area available for plentiful . grazing of animals, which, supplemented by fodder available from

agricul'tural production, assisted in developing the types of quality animals required for the needs of the. [1959] I95B times and the area in question (Report of the Gosamvardhan Enquiry Committee). The position has

Mohd. Ha1lif considerably changed since then. There has been a Quareshi v. large increase in human population and famines and The State of Biharepidemics having been largely brought under control, there has been an increase in the animal population

D•s c. J. also. Already there is a competition between man and the animal for the available land. The growing human population needs more food for which more land is required. The refugee problem has yet to be solved

and sufficient land has to be found for settling the refugees therein. With organised facilities for artifi- cial fertilisers and the introduction of scientific methods of cultivation agricultural production is

expected to increase and the problem of food for human consumption may be capable of a satisfactory solution. But as regards the cattle feed the gap be- tween the requirement and the available quantities is

so wide that there is little possibility, in any foresee- able future, of the country producing enough to feed them adequately. To summarise: The country is in short supply of milch cattle, breeding bulls and working bullocks. If

the nation is to maintain itself in health and nourish- ment andget adequate food, our cattle must be improv- ed. In order to achieve this objective our cattle population fit for breeding and work must be properly

fed and whatever cattle food is now at our disposal and whatever more we can produce must be made available to the useful cattle which are in presenti or will infuturo be capable of yielding milk or doing

work. The maintenance of useless cattle involves a wasteful drain on the nation's cattle feed. To main- tain them is to deprive the useful cattle of the much needed nourishment. The presence of so many useless

animals tends to deteriorate the breed. Total ban on the slaughter of cattle, useful or otherwise, is calculat- ed to bring about a serious dislocation, though not a complete stoppage, of the business of a considerable

section of the people who are by occupation btrtchers .(Ka.sais),. hide merchants and so on. Such a ban will also deprive a l~rge section of the people of what niay .J S.C.R. be their staple fooQ..

At any rate, they will have to r958 forego the little protein food which may be within their means to take once or twice in the week. Preser- Mohd. Hanif Quareshi vation of useless cattle by establishment of Gosadans

v. is not, for reasons already indicated, a practical pro- The State of Bihar position. Preservation of these useless animals by sending them to concentration camps to fend for Das c. J.

themselves is to leave them to a process of slow death and does no good to them. On the contrary, it hurts the best interests of the nation in that the useless cattle deprive the useful ones of a good part of the

cattle food, deteriorate the breed and eventually affect the production of milk and breeding bulls and working bullocks, besides involving an enormous expense which could be better utilised for more urgent national

need§. We are not unmindful of the fact that beef and buffalo flesh from calves under one year of age, heifers and young castrated stock yielding meat of a superior quality fetch comparatively higher prices in the

market and, therefore, the tendency of the butchers naturally is to slaughter young calves. This circum- stance clearly warns us that calves, heifers and young castrated stock (cattle and buffalo) which will in future

supply us milk and power for purposes of agriculture require protection. We also do not fail to bear in mind that for very good and cogent reasons cows also require protection. Cows give us milk and her progeny

for future service. Unfortunately, however, the average milk yield of a cow, as already stated, is very much less than that of a she-buffalo. As the Gosamvardhan Enquiry Committee's Report points out, despite all the

veneration professed for the cow, when it comes to the question of feeding, the she-buffalo always receives favoured treatment and the cow has to be satisfied with whatever remains after feeding ,the she-buffaloes,

bullocks, and calves in order of priority. The growth of cities and heavy demand for milk in the urban areas have contributed to the slaughter of good stock. For want of space no freshly calved animal can be brought

in without getting rid of one that had gvne dry. · Salvage facilities·not being available ~r, if available, [1959] '958 being uneconomical, the professional gowalas, who are mostly, if not wholly, Hindus, find it uneconomical to

Mohd. Hanif f h d d QHareshi maintain the cow a ter s e goes ry an consequent y v. sell her to the butcher for slaughter at Hs. 30 to Hs. 50 Tl" State of Bihar per head, irrespective of her age and potential produc- tivity, and import a fresh cow.

The veneration pro. Das c. f. fessed for the sanctity attached to the cow does not i)revent them from doing so. In big towns the munici- pal regulations are stringent and slaughter is permit-

ted only of unserviceable and unproductive animals. Instances are not uncommon, however, that to get an animal passed for slaughter, the teeth or the rings round the horns of the animal are tampered with and

sometimes a cow is even maimed in order that she may be passed by the veterinary inspector as fit for slaughter. Cows, which are rejected by the insp¥ctor, are taken out of the limits of the cities and slaughtered

in the rural areas. As slaughter is not confined to registered slaughter houses, the number of useful animals which are slaughtered cannot be given accu- rately. It is estimated in the Heport of the Expert

Committee at p. 2 that at least 50,000 high yielding cows and she-buffaloes from cities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras alone are sent annually for permature slaughter and are lost to the country. The causes

of slaughter of useful cattle are enumerated at pp. 2, 3, and 9 of that Heport, namely, lack of space in the cities and suburban areas, long dry period, want of arrangement for breeding bulls at the proper time, the

anxiety to get as much milk out of the cow as possible, the high cost of maintenance of cows in the cities and the difficulties in the matter of obtaining adequate fodder. For these reasons many animals are sent to

the slaughter houses through sheer economic pressure and are re2laced by fresh animals imported from breeding areas. T4e danger of such premature slaugh- ter is greater for the cow, for being an animal with a

scanty yield of milk it does not pay the owner to maintain her through the long dry period and hence there is an inducement for adopting even crue! prac- .tices to get her passed by the inspectors. But a dry

she-buffalo is well worth preserving and maintaining S.C.R. in expectation of rich return at the next lactation. r958 Besides, buffaloes for slaughter will not fetch as Mohd. Hanif

good a price as cows would do. Likewise there will Quareshi not be much inducement to the agriculturist or other v. owner to part with the breeding bulls or working Tlte State of Bihar bullocks (cattle and buffalo) as long as they are service- able. For their sheer usefulness and their high market

Das c. f · value as breeding or working animals the breeding bulls and working bullocks, as long as they are fit, are, .to the agriculturists, worth more than the price of their flesh in gold. There can hardly be any induce-

ment for maiming valuable animals which, as breeding bulls or working animals, can at any time fetch from . the agriculturists a price higher than what the maimed ones will fetch from the butchers. The breeding bulls

and working bullocks (cattle and buffaloes) do not, theretore, require as much protection as cows and calves do. The next question is as to what should be the scope of the ban on the slaughter of animals. One view is

that the slaughter of all animals (cattle and buffaloes) of all categories should be regulated by the State and that animals below a specified age or not suffering from some natural deformity should not be allowed to

be slaughtered. Drastic and stringent ·regulations have been imposed by municipal laws and have been tried but experience shows that they are not sufficient at least to protect the cow. It has been found to be

extremely difficult to enforce the regulations for in- adequacy of staff and veterinary inspectors, little or no check on the veterinary inspectors who succumb to the pressure or inducements of the butchers and pass

animals not really useless as and for useless and aged animals. A large percentage of the animals not fit for slaughter are slaughtered surreptitiousl.Y. outside the municipal limits. For reasons of economy rapacious

gowalas or callous agriculturists find it uneconomical to maintain the dry cow and even resort to cruel practices and maim the cow in order to get her passed for sl~ughter. As already stated, the she-buffalo

and the breeding bulls and working bullocks (both · • cattle and buffaloes) for their valu~, pr~sent and [1959] '958 future, do not run 'the same amou1it of danger as a dry cow does.

Regulation of slaughter of animals above Mohd. Hanif Quareshi a specified age may not be quite adequate protection v. for the cow but may be quite sufficient for the breed- Th• State of Bihar ing bulls and working bullocks and the she-buffaloes. These considerations induce us to make an exception

Das c. J. even in favour of the old and decrepit cows. The counsel for the petitioners, be it said to their credit, did not contend otherwise. After giving our most careful and anxious considera-

tion to the pros and cons of the problem as indicated and discussed above and keeping in view the presump- tion in favour of the validity of the legislation and without any the least disrespect to the opinions of the

legislatures concerned we feel that in discharging the ultimate responsibility cast on us by the Consti~ution we must approach and analyse the problem in an objective and realistic manner and then make our

pronouncement on the reasonableness of the restric- tions imposed by the impugned enactments. So approaching and analysing the problem, we have reached the conclusion (i) that a total ban on the

slaughter of cows of all ages and calves of cows and calves of she-buffaloes, male and female, is quite reasonable and valid and is in consonance with the directive principles laid down in Art. 48, (ii) that a

total ban on the slaughter of she-buffaloes or breeding bulls or working bullocks (cattle as well as buffaloes) as long as they are as milch or draught cattle is also reasonable and valid and (iii) that a total ban on the

slaughter of she-buffaloes, bulls and bullocks (cattle or buffalo) after they cease to be capable of yielding milk or of breeding or working as draught animals cannot be supported as reasonable in the interest of the

general pu bli&- W e now proceed to test each of the impugned Acts in the light of the aforesaid conclusions we have arrived at. The Bihar Act, in so far as it prohibits the slaughter of cows of all ages and calves of cows

and calves of buffaloes, male and female, is va!ia. The '.Bihar Ac't makes no distinction between she-buffaloes, bulls and J;mllooks (cattle and buffaloes) which are S.C.R. useful as milch or breeding or draught animals and

r958 those which are not and indiscriminately prohibits ff b 11 b II Mohd. Hanif slaughter of she-bu aloes, u s and u ocks (catt e Quareshi and buffalo) irrespective of their age or usefulness. In

v. our view the ban on slaughter of she-buffaloes, breed- The State of Bihar ing bulls and working bullocks (cattle and buffalo) which are useful is reasonable but of those which are

Das c. J. not useful is not valid. The question as to when a she-buffalo, breeding bull or working bullock (cattle and buffalo) ceases to be useful and· becomes useless and unserviceable is a matter for legislative determi-

nation. There is no provision in the Bihar Act in that behalf. Nor has our attention been drawn to any rule which may throw any light on the point. It is, therefore, not possible to apply the doctrine of

severability and uphold the ban on the slaughter of she-b"uffaloes, breeding bulls and working bullocks (cattle and buffalo) which are useful as milch or breed- ing or working animals and strike down the ban on

the slaughter of those which are useless. The entire provision banning the slaughter of she-buffaloes, breed- ing bulls, and working bullocks (cattle and buffalo) has, therefore, to be struck down.

The result is that we uphold and declare that the Bihar Act in so far as it prohibits the slaughter of cows of all ages .and calves of cows and calves of buffaloes, male and female, is

constitutionally valid and we hold that, in so far as it totally prohibits the slaughter of she-buffaloes, breed- ing bulls and working bullocks (cattle and buffalo), without prescribing any test or requirement as to

their age or usefulness, it infringes the rights of the petitioners under Art. 19 (1) (g) and is to that extent void. As regards the U. P. Act we uphold and declare, for reasons already stated, that it is constitutionally valid

in so far as it prohibits the slaughter Of cows of all ages and calves of cows, male and female, but we hold that in so far as it purports to totally prohibit the slaughter of breeding bulls and working bullocks

without prescribing any test or requirement as to their age or usefulness, it offends against Art. 19 (1) (g) and. is to that extent void. [1959] z958 As regards the Madhya Pradesh Act we likewise

declare that it is constitutionally valid in so far as it Mnhd. Hanij Quareshi prohibits the slaughter of cows of all ages and calves v. of cows, male and female, but that it is void in so far

The State of Biha• as it totally prohibits the slaughter of breeding bulls and working bullocks without prescribing any test or Da' c. J. requirement as to their age or usefulness.

W c also hold that the Act is valid in so far as it regulates the slaughter of other animals under certificates granted by the authorities mentioned therein. In the premises we direct the respondent States not

April :15. to enforce their respective Acts in so far as they have just been declared voitl by us. The parties will bear and pay their own costs of these applications. Petitions partly allowed .

BADRIDAS DAGA v. THE COMMISSIONER OF INCOME-TAX (VENKATARAMA AIYAR, GAJENDRAGADKAR and A. K. SARKAR JJ.) Income Tax-Deduction-Misappropriation by employee-Loss incidental to the conduct of the business–Indian Income-tax Act, I922 (II of I922), s. IO(I), (z)(xi), (z)(xv).

The appellant engaged an agent for the purposes of carrying on his business and conferred on him large powers of manage~ ment including authority to operate on bank accounts. While

acting under such authority the agent \vithdrew moneys from the bank and used them for the discharge of his personal debts. The appellant was able to recover from the agent only a parl of the amount misappropriated by him, and the balance had to be written off at the end of the accounting year as irrecoverable. The question ~as \vhether the amount which was misappropriat- ed and found~·irrecoverable was allowable as a deduction under the Indian Income-tax Act in determining the profits of the appellant:

Held, that the amount in question is not allowable either as a bad debt under s. 10(2)(xi) or as a business expenditute under . s. 10(2)(x") of the Indian Income-tax Act, 1922. It can, however, be deducted in computing the profits of the appellant under