RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI versus STATE OF U.P.

(2011] 11 S.C.R. 907 RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. (Criminal Appeal No. 656 of 2005) AUGUST 04, 2011 [DR. B.S. CHAUHAN AND SWATANTER KUMAR, JJ.] Penal Code, 1860: ss. 302, 396 – A/legation of dacoity and murder – Charge c sheet filed ulss.396, 201 – Conviction u/ss.302 and 201 –

Plea of appellant that he was charged for offence u/s. 396 but without reformulation/alteration of the charge, he was convicted for offence u/s.302 and this deprived him of a fair opportunity of defence and caused him serious prejudice; that 0 s.302 is a graver offence than an offence punishable u/s.396 and as such the entire trial and conviction of the appellant was vitiated in law; that there were serious contradictions between the statements of the witnesses and the courts below failed to appreciate the evidence in its correct perspective and this ·being a case of circumstantial evidence, prosecution failed to prove chain of events pointing towards the guilt of the accused –

On appeal, held: PW2 and PW4 were the witnesses who had last seen the deceased with the appellant – The statements of the Investigating Officer and the witnesses including PW3, in whose presence the dead body was F

recovered at the behest of the appellant, by means of recovery memo were the other material pieces of evidence which completed the chain of events and pointed undoubtedly towards the guilt of the accused – Prosecution was able to establish its case beyond reasonable doubt on the basis of G the circumstantial evidence – There was no significant link which was missing in the case put forward by the prosecution – No prejudice was caused to the appellant by his conviction u/s.302 though he was initially charged u/s.396 rlw s.201 – Further, the nature of injuries namely three incised wounds, three abrasions and severing of the trachea, caused by a

sharp-edged weapon indicated that the accused knew that the injury inflicted would be sufficient in the ordinary course of nature to cause death – The incriminating evidence were clearly put to the accused in his statement u/s.313 Cr.P.C. – The circumstances which constitute an offence uls. 302 were literally put to him, as s. 302 itself is an integral part of an offence punishable under s. 396 – The appellant was not able to demonstrate any prejudice which the appellant suffered in c his right to defence, fair trial and in relation to the case of the prosecution – Since the appellant did not suffer any prejudice, much less a serious prejudice, his conviction uls.302 cannot be set aside merely for want of framing of a specific/alternate charge for offence punishable uls.302 – More so because the dimensions and facets of an offence u/s.302 are incorporated by specific language and are inbuilt in the offence punishable uls.396 – Thus, on the application of principle of 'cognate offences', there was no prejudice caused to the rights of the appellant – Conviction upheld.

ss.392, 396- Essential ingredients- Held: To constitute. an offence of 'dacoity', robbery essentially should be committed by five or more persons – To constitute an offence of 'dacoity with murder' if any one of the five or more persons commit a murder while committing the dacoity, then every one of such persons so committing, attempting to commit or

aiding, by fiction of law, would be deemed to have committed the offence of murder and be liable for punishment depending upon the facts and circumstances of the case. ss.302, 396 – Distinction between – Discussed.

ss.302, 396 – Sentencing for the offence under – Jurisdiction of court – Held: Under s.396, wide discretion is vested in the courts in awarding punishment – The court, in exercise of its jurisdiction can award sentence of ten years with fine or even award sentence of life imprisonment or sentence RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

of death, as the case may be while u/s. 302, the court cannot, in its discretion, award sentence lesser than life imprisonment. ss.302, 396 – Essential ingredients – Held: The ingredients of both these offences, to some extent, are

different inasmuch as to complete an offence of 'dacoity' u/ 8 s.396, five or more persons must conjointly commit the robbery while u/s.302 even one person by himself can commit the offence of murder – But, to attract the provisions of s. 396, the offence of 'dacoity' must be coupled with murder – The ingredients of s.302 become an integral part of the offences punishable u/s.396 – Resultantly, the distinction with regard to the number of persons involved in the commission of the crime loses its significance as it is possible that the offence of 'dacoity' may not be proved but still the offence of murder could be established – A conjoint reading of ss.396 and 302 shows that the offence of murder has been lifted and D

incorporated in the provisions of s.396 – The offence of murder punishable u/s.302 and as defined u/s.300 will have .to be read into the provisions of offences stated uls.396- The expression 'murder' appearing in s.396 would have to take

necessarily in its ambit and scope the ingredients of s.300 – There is no scope for any ambiguity – The provisions are clear and admit no scope for application of any other principle of interpretation except the 'golden rule of construction', i.e., to read the statutory language grammatically and

terminologically in the ordinary and primary sense which it F appears in its context without omission or addition – These provisions read collectively put the matter beyond ambiguity that the offence of murder, is by specific language, included in the offences uls.396 – It will have the same connotation, meaning and ingredients as are contemplated under the

provisions of s. 302 – Interpretation of statutes. Criminal jurisprudence: Offences of grave nature vis-a-vis offence of lesser grave nature – Held: Usually an offence of grave nature includes (2011] 11 S.C.R.

A in itself the essentials of a lesser but cognate offence – Wherever an accused is charged with a grave offence, he can be punished for a less grave offence finally, if the grave offence is not proved – But even in those cases, -the Court has to be cautious while examining whether the ingredients B of the offences are independently satisfied – If the ingredients even of a lesser offence are not satisfied then it may be

difficult in a given case for the court to convict the person for (3n offence of a less grave nature – There can be cases where it may not be possible at all to punish a person of a less grave c offence if its ingredients are completely different and distinct from the grave offence – Thus, the accused has to be charged with a grave offence which would take within its ambit and scope, the ingredients of a less grave offence.

Prejudice – Held: To show prejudice to an accused, it has D to be shown that the accused has suffered some disability or detriment in the protections available to him under the Indian criminal jurisprudence –

Courts should make a close examination to ascertain whether there was really a failure of justice or whether it is only a camouflage – Administration of E Criminal Justice. Code of criminal Procedure, 1973:

Object of the Code -_Held: To further the ends of justice and not to frustrate them by the introduction of endless F technicalities – The object is to ensure that an accused person gets a full and fair trial along with certain well-established and we/I-understood canons of law that accord with th53 notions of natural justice.

ss. 211 to 215 – Framing of charge – Purpose of – Discussed. ss.211 to 215 – Protections to and rights of the accused during investigation and trial – Held: The accused has the H freedom to maintain silence during investigation as well as RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

before the Court – He may choose to maintain .silence or A make complete denial even when his statement u/s.313, Cr.P. C. is being recorded – The accused has right to fair trial – There is presumption of innocence (not guilty) and the

prosecution has to prove its case beyond· reasonable doubt – In case of allegation of prejudice by the accused, the Courls B are required to examine both the contents of the allegation of prejudice as well as its extent in relation to these aspects of the case of the accused – It will neither be possible nor appropriate to state such principle with exactitude as it will allJYays depend on the facts and circumstances of a given c case – Therefore, the Courl has to ensure that the ends of justice are met as that alone is the goal of criminal

adjudication – Thus, wherever a plea of prejudice is raised by the accused, it must be examined with reference to these rights and safeguards, as it is the violation of ttiese rights 0 alone that may result in weakening of the case of the

prosecution and benefit to the accused in accordance with law. Non-framing of charge or some defect in drafting of the charge – Held: Per se would not vitiate the trial itself – It will have to be examined in the facts and circumstances of a E

given case – Of course, the court has to keep in mind that the accused 'must be' and not merely 'may be' guilty of an offence – A person charged with a heinous or grave offence can be punished for a less grave offence of cognate nature whose essentials are satisfied with the evidence on record – Where the offences are cognate offences with commonality

in their feature, duly supported by evidence on record, the Courts can always exercise its power to punish the accused for one or the other provided the accused does not suffer any orejudice as indicated.

INTERPRETATION OF STATUTES: Where a provision is physically lifted and made part of another provision, it shall "all within the ambit and scope of principle akin to 'legislation ')y incorporation' which normally is applied between an

912 . existing statute and a newly enacted Jaw – Penal Code, 1860 – ss.396. WORDS AND PHRASES: Word 'prejudice', cognate', 'cognate offence – Meaning of The prosecution case was that five accused

including appellant committed dacoity in a car belonging to the appellant and also murdered the victim-deceased. The uncle of the deceased was a merchant. The deceased used to realize money from the market on

C behalf of his uncle's firm. On the fateful day, the deceased had gone to collect money but he did not return home at night. A case was registered under Section 364, IPC. After investigation, the appellant was arrested. He made a

confessional statement that the dead body of the D deceased. was lying in sugarcane fields. The body was recovered and identified. The other accused were also arrested. The appellant was charged under Sections 396

and 201, IPC. The trial court convicted the appellant under Sections 302 and 201 IPC. The accused 'A' was convicted under Section 411, IPC but the trial court acquitted him and three other accused for the offence under Section

396 IPC by giving them benefit of doubt. On appeals, the High Court allowed the appeal of 'A' and acquitted him even of the charge under Section 411, IPC. However, the conviction of the appellant was upheld. The instant

appeal was filed challenging the order of the High Court. It was contended for the appellant that he was charged for an offence under Section 396 IPC but without reformulation/alteration of the charge, he was convicted

G for an offence under Section 302 IPC and this deprived him of a fair opportunity of defence and has caused him serious prejudice; that Section 302, IPC is a graver offence than an offence punishable under Section 396,

IPC and as such the entire trial and conviction of the H appellant was vitiated in law; that there were serious RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. contradictions between the statements of the witnesses A

and the courts below erred in fact and in law, failed to appreciate the evidence in its correct perspective and this being a case of circumstantial evidence, the prosecution has failed to prove the chain of events pointing towards

the guilt of the accused. Dismissing the appeal, the Court HELD: 1.1. The appellant was charged with an offence under Sections 396 and 201, IPC. Section 391, IPC explains the offence of 'dacoity'. When five or more C

persons conjointly commit or attempt to commit a robbery, or where the whole number of persons conjointly committihg or attempting to commit a robbery, and persons present and aiding such commission and

attempt amount to five or more, every person so D committing, attempting or aiding, is said to commit 'dacoity'. Under Section 392 IPC, the offence of 'robbery' simplicitor is punishable with rigorous imprisonment

which may extend to ten years or 14 years depending upon the facts of a given case. Section 396 IPC brings E within its ambit a murder committed along with 'dacoity'. In terms of "this provision, if any one of the five or more persons, who are conjointly committing dacoity, commits

murder in so committing dacoity, every one of those persons shall be punished with death or imprisonment for life or rigorous imprisonment for a term which may F extend to ten years and shall also be liable to fine. On a plain reading of these provisions, it is clear that to

constitute an offence of 'dacoity', robbery essentially should be committed by five or more persons. Similarly, to constitute an offence of 'dacoity with murder' any one G of the five or more persons should commit a murder while

~ommitting the dacoity, then every one of such persons so committing, attempting to commit or aiding, by fiction of law, would be deemed to have committed the offence Qf murder and be liable for punishment provided under H

[2011) 11 S.C.R. A these provisions depending upon the facts and circumstances of the case. [Paras 6-8] [932-F-H; 933-A- 1.2. Section 299 defines 'culpable homicide'. Whoever causes death by doing an act with the intention

of causing death, or with the intention of causing such bodily injury as is likely to cause death, or with the knowledge that. he is likely by such act to cause death, commits the offence of culpable homicide. Except the

exceptions provided under Section 300 IPC, culpable C homicide is murder if the act by which death is caused is done with the intention of causing death. The intention to cause death is the primary distinguishing feature

between these two offences. It is a fine but clear -tine of distinction. In terms of Section 300 IPC, except in the D cases stated in that provision, culpable homicide is murder if the act by which the death is caused is done

with the intention of causing death or in terms of any of the circumstances stated secondly, thirdly and fourthly respectively. The law clearly marks a distinction between E culpable homicide amounting to murder and culpable

homicide not amounting to murder. Another. distinction between Sections 302 and 396 is that under the latter, wide discretion is vested in the courts in awarding punishment. The court, in exercise of its jurisdiction and F judicial discretion in consonance with the established

principles of law can award sentence of ten years with fine or even award sentence of life imprisonment or sentence of death, as the case may be while under Section 302, the court cannot, In Its discretion, award

G sentence lesser than life imprisonment.The ingredients of both these offences, to some extent, are also different inasmuch as to complete an offence of 'dacoity' under Section 396 IPC, five or more persons must conjointly

commit the robbery while under Section 302 of the IPC H even one person by himself can commit the offence of RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. murder. But, to attract the provisions of Section 396, the A · offence of 'dacoity' must be coupled with murder. In other words, the ingredients of Section 302 become an integral

part of the offences punisl")able under Section 396 of the IPC. Resultantly, the distinction with regard to the number of persons involved in the commission of the crime loses B its significance as it is possible that the offence of

'dacoity' may not be proved but still the offence of murder could be established, like in the instant case. Upon reasonable analysis of the language of these provisions, it is clear that the Court has to keep in mind the c

ingredients which shall constitute a criminal offence within the meaning of the penal section. This is not only essential in the case of the offence charged with but even where there is comparative study of different penal

provisions as the accused may have committed more 0 than one offence or even offences of a graver.nature. He may finally be punished for a lesser offence or vice versa, if the law so permits and the requisite ingredients are

satisfied. [Paras 9-11] [933-F-H; 934-A-H] 1.3. The judicial pronouncements show a consistent E trend that wherever an accused is charged with a grave offence, he can be punished for a less grave offence

finally, if the grave offence is not proved. But even 'in those cases, the Court has to be cautious while examining whether the ingredients of the offences are independentfy satisfied. If the ingredients even of a lesser offence are not satisfied then it may be difficult in a given case for the court to convict the person for an offence of a less grave nature. There can be cases where it may not

be possible at all to punish a person of a less grave G offence if its ingredients are completely different and distinct from the grave offence. In other words, the. accused has to be charged with a grave offence which

would take within its ambit and scope the ingredients of a less grave offence. The evidence led by the prosecution H for a grave offence, thus, would cover an offence of a less grave nature. But it is essential that the offence for which the Court proposes to punish the accused, is established

beyond reasonable doubt by the prosecution. [Para 12] (935-A-F] 1.4. The Code of Criminal Procedure like all procedural laws is designed to further the ends of justice and not to frustrate them by the introduction of endless

technicalities. The object of the Code is to ensure that an accused person gets a full and fair trial along with certain C well-established and well-understood canons of law that accord with the notions of natural justice. Usually an

offence of grave nature includes in itself the essentials of a lesser but cognate offence. In other words, there are classes of offences like offences against the human D body, offeoces against property and offences relating to cheating, misappropriation, forgery etc. In the normal

course of events, the question of grave and less grave offences would arise in relation to the offences falling in the same class and normally may not be inter se the classes. It is expected of the prosecution to collect all

evidence in accordance with law to ensure that the prosecution is able to establish the charge with which the accused' is charged, beyond reasonable doubt. It is only in those cases, keeping in view the facts and

circumstances of a given case and if the court is of the view that the grave offence has not been established on merits or for a default of technical nature, it may still proceed to punish the accused for an offence of a less

grave nature and content. [Paras 14, 17] (939-B-C; 942- G B-E] Willie (William) Slaney v. State of Madhya Pradesh AIR 1956 SC 116: 1955 SCR 1140 – followed. Iman Ali & Anr. v. State of Assam AIR 1968 SC 1464:

H 1968 SCR 610 – relied on. RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. 2. ( To show prejudice to an accused, it has to be shown that the accused has suffered some disability or · detriment in the protections available to him under the

Indian criminal jurisprudence. It Is also a settled canon of criminal law that this has occasioned the accused with failure of justice. One of the other cardinal principles of B criminal justice administration is that the courts should

make a close examination to ascertain whether there was really a failure of justice or whether it is only a camouflage, as this expression is perhaps too pliable. With the development of law, Indian courts have accepted c certain protections to and rights of the accused during

investigation and trial which are: The accused has the freedom to maintain silence during investigation as well as before the Court. The accused may choose to maintain silence or make complete denial even when his statement D

.. under Section 313 of the Code of Criminal Procedure is being recorded, of course, the Court would be entitled to draw inference, including adverse inference, as may be permissible to it in accordance with law. The accused has

right to fair trial; There is presumption of innocence (not guilty) and the prosecution must prove its case beyond reasonable doubt. Prejudice to an accused or failure of justice, thus, has to be examined with reference to these

aspects. That alone, probably, is the method to determine with some element of certainty and discernment whether there has been actual failure of justice. 'Prejudice' is incapable of being interpreted in its generic sense and

applied to criminal jurisprudence. The plea of prejudice has to be in relation to investigation or trial and not matters falling beyond their scope. Once the accused is able to show that there is serious prejudice to either of G these aspects and that the same has defeated the rights

available to him under the criminal jurisprudence, then the accused can seek benefit under the orders of the Court. [Paras 20-21] [945-B-H; 946-A-B] Anil @ Raju Namdev Patil vs. Administration of Daman

& Diu and Anr. 2006 Suppl. (9) SCR 466; K. Prema S. Rao and Anr. v. Yadla Srinivasa Rao and Ors. (2003) 1 SCC 217: 2002 (3) Suppl. SCR 339; Kammari Brahmaiah and Ors. v. Public Prosecutor, High Court of A.P. (1999) 2 SCC 522:

B 1999 (1) SCR 361; Dalbir Singh v. State of U.P. (2004) 5 SCC 334; Kamalanantha and Ors. v. State of T.N. (2005) 5 SCC 194: 2005 (3) SCR 182; Harjit Singh v. State of Punjab (2006) 1 sec 463: 2005 (5) Suppl. SCR 629 …. relied on.

c Black's Law Dictionary, Eighth Edition – referred to. 2.2. Right to fair trial, presumption of innocence until pronouncement of guilt and the standards of proof, i .. e., the prosecution must prove its case beyond reasonable

doubt are the basic and crucial tenets of Indian criminal D jurisprudence. The Courts are required to examine both the contents of the allegation of prejudice as well as its extent in relation to these aspects of the case of the

accused. It will neither be possible nor appropriate to state such principle with exactitude as it will always E depend on the facts and circumstances of a given case. Therefore, the Court has to ensure that the ends of justice are met as that alone is the goal of criminal adjudication. Thus, wherever a plea of prejudice is raised by the

accused, it must be examined with reference to these F rights and safeguards, as it is the violation of these rights alone that may result in weakening of the case of the prosecution and benefit to the accused in ~ccordance

with law. [Para 22] [946-C-E] Shamnsaheb M. Multtani v. State of Kamataka (2001) 2 G SCC 577: 2001 (1) SCR 514; Dinesh Seth v. State of NCT of Delhi (2008) 14 SCC 94: 2008 (12) SCR 113; Shivaji

Sahebrao Bobade & Anr. v. State of Maharashtra AIR 1973 SC 2622: 1974 (1) SCR 489 – relied on. 2.3. During conduct of trial, framing of a charge is an RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

important function of the court. Sections 211 to 224 of A Chapter XVII of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 have been devoted by the Legislature to the various facets of framing of charge and other related matters

thereto. Under Section 211, the charge should state the offence with which the accused is charged and should B contain the other particulars specified in that section. In terms of Section 214, in every charge, words used in

describing an offence shall be deemed to have been used in the sense attached to them respectively by the law under which such offence is pu.nishable. Another c significant provision is Section 215 which states that no

error in stating either the offence or the particulars required to be stated in the charge, and no omission to state the offence or those particulars, shall be regarded at any stage of the case as material unless the accused 0

was in fact misled by such error or omission, and it has occasioned a failure of justice. Further, the court has ·been vested with the power to alter the charge. There could be trial of more than one offence together and there could even be joint trial of the accused. The purpose of E framing of a charge is to put the accused at notice

regarding the offen.ce for which he is being tried before the court of competent jurisdiction. For want of requisite information of offence and details thereof, the accused should not suffer prejudice or there should not be failure of justice. The requirements of putting the accused at F

notice and there being a charge containing the requisite particulars, as contemplated under Section 211, has to be read with reference to Section 215 of the Code. [Para 22) [946-F-H; 947-A-D]

3.1. Non-framing of charge or some defect in drafting of the charge per se would not vitiate the trial itself. It will have to be examined in the facts and circumstances of a given case. Of course, the court has to keep in mind that

the accused 'must be' and not merely 'may be' guilty of H SUPREME COURT .REPORTS A an offence. The mental distance between 'may be' and 'must be' Is long and divides vague conjectures from

sure conclusions. A person charged with a heinous or grave offence can be punished for a less grave offence of cognate nature whose essentials are satisfied with the B evidence on record. Alike or similar offences can be

termed as 'cognate offences'. The word 'cognate' is a term primarily used in civil jurisprudence particularly with reference to the provisions of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 where Section 3(c) has used this expression in

c relation to the d'escendants of a class of heirs an·d normally the term is used with reference to blood relations. The expression 'cognate' has also been recognized and applied to the criminal jurisprudence as

well not only in the Indian system but even in other parts of the world. Such offences indicate the similarity, common essential features between the offences and they primarily being based on differences of degree hav~

been understood to be ·'cognate offences'. Therefore, where the offences are cognate offences with commonality in their feature, duly supported by evidence E on record-, ttie Courts can always exercise its power to punish the a'ccused for one or the 'other provided the

accused does not suffer any prejudice as indicated. [Paras 22, 23, 25, 26) [948-C-G; 949-A-B-G-H; 950-C] Da/bir Singh v. State of U.P. (2004) 5 SCC 334 – Followed. Lakhjit Singh v. State of Punjab 1994 Suppl. (1) SCC

(Crl.) 173; Sanagaraboina Sreenu v. State of A.P. (1997) 5 G sec 348: 1997 (3) SCR 957 – relied on. 3.2. The concept of punishing the accused for a less grave offence than the one for which he was charged is

not unique to the Indian Judicial System. It has its relevancy even under the English jurisprudence under H the concept of alternative verdicts. There is no absolute RAFIQ AHMED@ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

bar or impediment, in law, in punishing a person for an offence less grave than the offences for which the accused was charged during the course of the trial provided the essential ingredients for adopting such a

course are satisfied. [Paras 29, 31) [956-H; 957-A-B; 958- E-F] R v. Coutts (Appellant) 2006 UKHL 39 – referred to. 3.3. The instant case related with an offence punishable under Section 396 IPC and in alternative with

an offence under Section 302 of the IPC. The offence C under Section 396 consists of two parts: firstly, dacoity by five or more persons, and secondly, committing of a murder in addition to the offence of dacoity. If the

accused have committed both these offences, they are liable to be punished with death or imprisonment for life D or rigorous imprisonment for a term which may extend to ten years and be liable to pay fine as well. Under

Section 302 IPC, whoever commits murder shall be punished with death or imprisonment for life and shall also be liable to pay fine. A conjoint reading of Sections 396 and 302 IPC shows that the offence of murder has

been lifted and incorporated in the provisions of Section 396 IPC. In other words, the offence of murder punishable under Section 302 and as defined under Section 300 will have to be read into the provisions of offences stated

under Section 396 IPC. In other words, where a provision is physically lifted and made part of another provision, it shall fall within the ambit and scope of principle akin to 'legislation by incorporation' which normally is applied

between an existing statute and a newly enacted law. G The expression 'murder' appearing in Section 396 would have to take necessarily in its ambit and scope the ingredients of Section 300 of the IPC. There Is no scope

for any ambiguity. The provisions are clear and admit no scope for appllcatlon of any other principle of H A interpretation except the 'golden rule of construction', i.e., to read the statutory language grammatically and

terminologically in the ordinary and primary sense which it appears in its context without omission or addition. These provisions read collectively put the matter beyond B ambiguity that the offence of murder, is by specific

language, included in the offences under Section 396. It will have the same connotation, meaning and ingredients as are contemplated under the provisions of Section 302 IPC. [Paras 32-33] [958-G-H; 959-A-F]

c 3.4. This is admittedly a case of circumstantial evidence and, thus, the evidence has to be examined in that context. There is no dispute to the fact that the charge under Sections 396 and 201 IPC were framed

against the accused. The trial court had acquitted the four D accused but convicted the appellant for an offence under Sections 302 and 201, IPC. [para 34] [959-G-H; 960-A-B] 3.5. PW2 and PW4 were the witnesses '11fhO had last

seen the deceased with the appellant. The statements of E the Investigating Officer (PW11) and the witnesses. including PW3, in whose presence the dead body was recovered at the behest of the appellant, by means of

recovery memo are the other material pieces of evidence which would complete the chain of events and point undoubtedly towards the guilt of the accused. The accused, for the reasons best known to him, had taken

up a stand of complete denial in his statement recorded under Section 313 Cr.P.C. and opted not to explain his whereabouts at the relevant time. Furthermore, he was a G regular taxi driver. It is true that the statement under Section 313 Cr.P.C. cannot be the sole basis for

conviction of the accused but certainly it can be a relevant consideration for the courts to examine, particularly when the prosecution has otherwise been RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

able to es.tablish the chain of events. It was clearly A established from the evidence on record that the deceased was a regular trader and used to come to Nehtaur from where he was picked up by the appellant

on the fateful day. These were certain definite circumstances clearly indicating towards the involvement B of the appellant in the commission of the crime. The prosecution was able to establish its case beyond

reasonable doubt on the basis of the circumstantial evidence. There was no significant link which was missing in the case put forward by the prosecution. [para c i 35) [961-D-H; 962-A]

Shyam Behari v. State of Uttar Pradesh AIR 1957 S.C. 320 – Followed. 4. No prejudice was caused to the appellant by his D conviction for an offence under Section 302 IPC though he was initially charged with an offence punishable

under Section 396 IPC read with Section 201 IPC. Further, the nature of injuries namely three incised wounds, three abrasions and severing of the trachea, caused by a E sharp-edged weapon as noticed by the High Court

indicated that the accused knew that the injury inflicted would be sufficient in the ordinary course of nature to cause death. The 'prejudice' has to be examined with reference to the rights and/or protections available to the accused. The incriminating evidence was clearly put to

the accused in his statement under Section 313 Cr.P.C. The circumstances which constitute an offence under Section 302 were literally put to him, as Section 302 IPC itself is an integral part of an offence punishable under G Section 396 IPC. The appellant was not able to

demonstrate any prejudice which the appellant has suffered in his right to defence, fair trial and in relation to the case of the prosecution. Once the appellant has not suffered any prejudice, much less a serious prejudice, H

A then the conviction of the appellant under Section 302 IPC cannot be set aside merely for want.of framing of a specific/alternate charge for an offence, punishable under Section 302 IPC. It is more so because the dimensions

and facets of an offence under Section 302 are B incorporated by specific language and are inbuilt in the offence punishable under Section 396 IPC. Thus, on the application of principle of 'cognate offences', there was

no prejudice caused to the rights of the appellant. [para 38) [963-E-H;. 964-A-C] c Case Law Reference: relied on Para 15 2006 Suppl. (9) SCR 466 relied on Para 18 2002 (3) Suppl. SCR 339

relied on Para 18 1999 (1) SCR 361 relied on Para 18 20Q5 (3) SCR 182 relied on Para 18 2005 (5) Suppl. SCR 629 relied on Para 18 2001 (1) SCR 514 relied on. Para 22 1955 SCR 1140 .

Followed Paras 13, 22 2008 (12) SCR 113 relied on Para 22 1974 (1) SCR 489 relied on Para 22 1994 Suppl. (1) sec (Crl.) 173 relied on Para 27 1997 (3) SCR 957 relied on Para 27 (2004) 5 sec 334

Followed Para 27 2001 (1) SCR 514 relied on Para 28 2006 UKHL 39 referred to Para 29 AIR 1957 SC 3~0 Followed Paras 36, ',37 RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. CRIMINAL APPELLATE JURISDICTION : Crimioal Appeal A

No. 656 of 2005. From the Judgment & Order dated 29.~.2004 of the. High Court of Judicature at Allahabad in Criminal Appeal No. 1887 of 1981. R. Anand Padmanabhan, Prit~vi Raj B.N., G. Ramakrishna

Prasad for the Appellant. T.N. Singh, Rajeev Dubey, Kamlendra Mishra, Jatinder Kumar Bhatia for the Respondent. The Judgment of the Court was delivered, by SWATANTER KUMAR, J. 1. Fine distinctions of law, if

discerning, should normally be recognized and permitted to operate in their respective fields. With the development of D criminal jurisprudence, the law has recognized· the concept of cognate charges besides alternative charges. The

differentiation between the offences from the same family in contradistinction to the offences falling in different categories have persuaded the courts to apply the principle of 'cognate E offences' and punish the offender of a less grave offence

because the offence of greater gravity has not been proved beyond reasonable doubt. This principle is to be applied keeping in view the facts and circumstances of a given case and notwithstanding the fact that no charge for such less grave offence had been framed against the offender. In the case in hand, we are concerned with a similar question which arises from the following facts:

All the five accused, namely, Rafiq Ahmad, Ahsan, G lmamuddin, Arun Kumar and Yashwant Singh, according to the prosecution, in the intervening night of 30th September, 1977 and 1st October, 1977 committed dacoity in Ambassador Car

No.UPS 7293 belonging to Rafiq Ahmad. While the car was going on the pucca road from Nehtaur to Dhampur within the jurisdiction of thana Nehtaur, the accused had committed the murder of Jagdish Prasad @ Jagdish Chandra @ Jagdish

Babu and thereafter thrown his body in a sugarcane field of one lkrar Ahmad situated in Village Kashmiri, thana Nehtaur with the intention of screening themselves from punishment for

committing any offence. Shri Krishna Garg, uncle of the deceased was carrying on ~he wholesale business of sugar, Khandsari, flour, food grains etc. under the name of Mis. Sadri Prasad Sunder Lal in Mohalla Bari Mandi, Dhampur (Bijnor). This firm had branches in the name of 'Garg Brothers'. The firm used to sell the above products on credit to the customers at Dhampur, Nagina, Sherkot, Sheohara, Haldaur and Nehtaur

and the deceased, Jagdish Prasad, used to go to Nehtaur every Friday to realize money from them. On Friday, 30th September, 1977, also he left for Nehtaur to collect money. Ordinarily, he used to return home between 9.00 p.m. and

10.00 p.m. with collections roughly upto Rs. 10,000/-. Though, Jagdish Prasad, on that day also had collected more than Rs. · 8,000/- from the customers, but he did not return home that night. The next morning, Shri Krishna Garg sent his Munim, Ramesh Chandra to Nehtaur to enquire about Jagdish Prasad. The Munim returned and disclosed to Shri Krishna Garg the

above facts. After arrival of the Munim, Shri Krishna Garg left Dhampur for Nehtaur along with Pyare Lal, Surendra Kumar, Har Kishan and Kamlesh to enquire about Jagdish Prasad. From the enquiries, it came to light that at about 8.00 p.m., the deceased Jagdish Prasad had occupied a taxi, in which some persons were already sitting, at the Agency Chauraha, Nehtaur. The matter was reported and after making an entry in the GD on 1st October, 1977 at 2.30 p.m., SI K.L. Verma started

investigation and interrogated a number of persons including Shri Krishna Garg and Pyare Lal. Thereafter, a case was registered under Section 364 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC). On 2.10.1977, the investigation was taken up by Station Officer (S.O.) Raj Pal Yadav and both Mr. Verma and Mr. Yadav left the police station together for investigation and reached P .S. Dhampur. At about 9.00 pm, accused Rafiq Ahmad was

RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] arrested by the police along with his taxi No.UPS 7293. His A arrest led to recovery of the taxi which was made in presence of Pyare Lal and Surendra Kumar. During the course of the

investigation, the accused Rafiq Ahmad also made a confessional statement before the investigating officer in presence of Surendra Kumar and Pyare Lal that the dead body B of the deceased was lying in the sugarcane fields near village Kashmiri. The body of the deceased was, thus, recovered and identified by Pyare Lal. SI K.L Verma (PW9) prepared the

inquest report and the body was subjected to post mortem by Dr. R.8. Saxena (PW8), the Medical Officer. c On 3rd October, 1977, the accused Ahsan and his brother lmamuddin were arrested with the help of Zamal Ahmad @

Khan Zamaloo and Sattar. A gold ring was recovered from the possession of Ahsan. These arrests were effected at about 9.00 pm. Similarly, the accused Yashwant Singh was arrested D by the police from the railway platform at 1.00 am on 2nd

October, 1977. We may refer to the post-mortem report and the ante- mortem injuries found by Dr. Saxena (PW8) on the body of the E deceased which are as follows : "1. Incised wound with chopping of left ear vertically

oblique ~ith Y:i part of ear missing. 2. Incised wound oblique from above down wards below left side angle of jaw to upper neck 1/1/ 4"X%"XW'. 3. Incised wound 6"X1"X bone deep at front of neck

just above Adam's cartilage. 4. Abrasion Y4" X Y4" on back of both shoulders. 5. Abrasion 1/8" X Y4" on back of right elbow joint. [2011) 11 S.C.R. 6. Abrasion %" X %" on outer side and back of left

elbow. In the opinion of Dr. Saxena, death was caused on account 1of respiratory failure and hemorrhage resulting from severing of trachea." fhe investigation was completed and the charge-sheet in

accordance with the provisions of Section 173 of the Criminal Procedure Code (for short 'Cr.P.C.') was filed before the court of competent jurisdiction. The accused were committed to the Court of Sessions and tried in accordance with law.

The learned Trial Court having considered the material and the report submitted to it in terms of Section 173 of the Cr.P.C. and vide order dated 11th September, 1979 framed the following charge against all the accused, including the present appellant, Rafiq Ahmad:

"S.T. No.3/78 State VS. Rafiq Etc. Charge I Jawant singh Ill additional Sessions Judge, Bijnour hereby charge you Rafiq, Ahsan, lmamuddin, Arun Kumar and Yashwant Singh accused as follows: –

That you in the night of 30-9-77 committed dacoity in Taxi No. UPS 7273 while it was running on Nehtaur to Dhampur road and that in the commission of said dacoity murder was committed by you of one jagdish prashad and that you

thereby committed an offence punishable u/s 396 IPC and within my cognizance And I hereby direct that you be tried by me on the said charge. Dt.11-9-79 Sd/- Judge RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

[SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] Charge read over and explained in Hindi to the accused who pleaded not guilty. Sd/- Judge Sd/- Rafiq, Sd/-Ahsan, Sd/- lmamuddin, Sd/- Arun Kumar Sd/- Yashwant Singh"

This charge came to be amended by the learned Tria~ Court and the amended charge read as under: " S.T. No. 3/78 State VS. Rafiq Etc. Amended Charge c I Jaswant singh Ill additional Sessions Judge, Bijnour

hereby charge you Rafiq, Ahsan, lmamuddin, Arun Kumar and Yashwant Singh accused as follows: – Firstly that you along with one another during the night of 30-9-77 and 1-10-77 committed dacoity in Ambassador

Car No. UPS 7293 belonging to rafiq accused while it was going from Nehtaur to Dhampur on the pucca road within the circle of P .S: Nahtaur District Bijnaur and that in the commission of the said dacoity, murder of jagdish prashad

was committed by you and that you thereby committed an offence punishable under Section 396 IPC and within the cognizance of this court. Secondly – that you along with one another during the night of 30-09-77 and 1-10-77 in the area of village Kashmiri

P.S. Nehtaur Dist. Bijnore knowing or having reason to believe that an offence U/s 396 IPC punishable with death or imprisonment for life has been committed did cause evidence of the said offence to disappear by secreting the dead body of jagdish prashad in the sugar cane field of

lkrar Ahmad with the intention of screening yourself from legal punishment ahd thereby committed an offence [20111 11 s.c~R punishable u/s 201 IPC and with the cognizance of this court.

c And I hereby direct that you be tried by this court on the said charge 25-2-80 Sd/- Judge Charge read over and explained in Hindi to the accused who pleaded not guilty. Sd/- Rafiq,

Sd/- Ahsan, Sd/- lmamuddin, Sd/- Arun Kumar Sd/- Yashwant Singh" Sd/- Judge The prosecution examined as many as 12 witnesses to prove its case. Besides the statement of these witnesses,

prosecution had also placed reliance on Exhibits Ka-1 to Ka- 23. Incriminating evidence against the accused which came on E record during the course of the trial was put to the accused whose statement under Section 313 of the Cr.P.C. was

recorded by the Court on 20th February, 1981. It may be stated here that in his statement, accused Rafiq Ahmad denied his presence at the place of occurrence and stated that the F witnesses being the relatives of the deceased were deposing against the appellant. The accused had also led defence and examined two witnesses, namely, Naik Singh (DW1) and Shri

J.P. Singh (DW2) and placed number of documents on record. Tl'le Trial Court, by a detailed judgment dated 17th August, G 1981, came to the conclusion that Rafiq Ahmad was guilty of charge under Sections 302 and 201 IPC under which the

accused was liable for conviction and punishment. The Court further held that Ahsan was guilty of a charge under Section 411 IPC but acquitted him and the three other accused, namely, H lmamuddin, Arun Kumar and Yashwant Singh under Section

396 IPC by giving them benefit of doubt. The Court awarded RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] rigorous imprisonment for life to Rafiq Ahmad under Section 302 IPC and seven years rigorous imprisonment under Section 201 IPC. Both the sentences were ordered to run concurrently. The Trial Court ordered the accused Ahsan to undergo rigorous imprisonment for a period of one year and to pay a fine of Rs.500/- under Section 411, I PC and in default to undergo imprisonment for fi.Jrther period of six months.

Accused Rafiq Ahmad, dissatisfied with the judgment of the Trial Court, preferred an appeal before the High Court. Ahsan also challenged his conviction and sentence. Both these appeals were heard and disposed of by the High Court by a

common judgment. The appeal filed by Rafiq Ahmad was dismissed. His conviction and sentence was maintained while the appeal preferred by Ahsan was accepted and he was acquitted even of the charge under Section 411 IPC.

Rafiq Ahmad, in the present appeal, has impugned the judgment of the High Court. 2. The entire emphasis of the submissions made on behalf of the appellant is primarily founded on determination of a question of law, which, if answered in favour of the appellant, according to the learned counsel appearing for the appellant, would entitle the appellant to an order of acquittal. The argument is that the appellant was charged for an offence under Section 396 IPC and without reformulation/alteration of the charge, the appellant has been convicted for an offen.ce under Section 302 IPC. This according to the learned counsel, has deprived the appellant of a fair opportunity of defence and has caused him serious prejudice. Section 302 IPC is a graver offence than an offence punishable under Section 396 of the IPC and as such the entire trial and conviction of the appellant is vitiated in law. 3. It is also contended that the learned trial court as well as the High Court have erred in fa~t and in law, have failed to appreciate the evidence in its correct perspective and also that there are serious contradictions between the statements of the witnesses. It is also urged that this being a case of

[2011) 11 S.C.R. A circumstantial evidence, the prosecution has failed to prove the chain of events, pointing towards the guilt of the accused. Therefore, the judgments of the courts below are liable.to be set aside.

4. On the contra, it is contended on behalf of the State that despite the present case being a case of circumstantial evidence, the prosecution has been able to establi!?h its case beyond any reasonable doubt. The appellant has suffered no prejudice, whatsoever, because of his conviction under Section 302 of the IPC.

c 5. Before we proceed to examine the merit or otherwise of the above rival contentions, it will be important for us to refer to the relevant provisions of the IPC at this stage itself. The relevant provisions read as under:-

"302.Punishment for murder.-Whoever commits murder shall be punished with death, or imprisonment for life, and shall also be liable to fine .. 396. Dacoity with murder.-lf any one of five or more

persons, who are conjointly committing dacoity, commits murder in so committing dacoity, every one of those persons shall be punished with death, or imprisonment for life, or rigorous imprisonment for a term which may extend to ten years, an~ shall also be liable to fine."

6. As is evident from the amended charge reproduced earlier, the appellant was charged with an offence under Sections 396 and 201 of the IPC. It is not necessary for us to examine the charge framed against the other co-accused as

G all of them have been acquitted and the judgment of acquittal has not been challenged before this Court. 7. Section 391 I PC explains the offence of 'dacoity'. When five or more persons conjointly commit or attempt to commit a robbery, or where the whole number of persons conjointly

H committing or attell)pting to commit a robbery, and persons RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] present and aiding such commission and attempt amount to five or more; every person so committing; attempting or aiding, is said to cornmit 'dacoity'. Under Sesti6h 39~ lf'C, thfi! tiffel'!C;.'e of 'robbery' simplleitor is

puhl&habl~ with rigc>rbUs imprisonment which may extend to ten years or 14 years iCfepending upon the facts of a given case. Section 399 IPC 'brings within its ambit a murder committed along with 'dacoity'. In terms of this provision, if any one of the five or more persons, who are conjointly committing dacoity, commits murder in so committing dacoity, every one of those persons shall be

punished with death or imprisonment for life or rigorous c 'imprisonment for a term which may extend to ten years and shall also be liable to fine. · 8. On a plain reading of these provisions, it is clear that to constitute an offence of 'dacoity', robbery essentially should be committed by five or more persons. Similarly, to constitute an offence of 'dacoity with murder' any one of· the five or more persons should commit a murder while committing the dacoity, then every one of such persons so committing, attempting to commit or aiding, by fiction of law, would be deemed to have committed the offence of murder and be liable for punishment E provided under these provisions depending upon the facts and circumstances of the case.

~. Section 299 defines 'culpable homicide'. Whoever causes death by doing an act with_ the intention of causing death, or with the intention of causing such bodily injury as is likely to cause death, or with the knowledge that he is likely by such act to cause death, commits the offence of culpable

homicide. Except the exceptions provided under Section 300 IPC, culpable homicide is murder if the act by which death is G caused is done with the intention of causing death. The intention to cause death is the primary distinguishing feature between these two offences. It is a fine but clear line of distinction. 10. In terms of Section 300 IPC, except in the cases stated n that provision, culpable homicide is murder if the act by which (2011) 11 S.C.R.

A the death is caused is done with the intention of causing death or in terms of any of the circumstances stated secondly, thirdly and fourthly respectively. The law clearly marks a distinction between culpable homicide amounting to murder and culpable homicide not amounting to murder. Another distinction between B Sections 302 and 396 is that under the latter, wide discretion is vested in the courts in relation awarding of punishment. The court, in exercise of its jurisdiction and judicial discretion in consonance with the established principles of law can award sentence of ten years with fine or even award sentence of life c imprisonment or sentence of death, as the case may be while under Section 302, the court cannot, in its discretion, award sentence lesser than life imprisonment.

11. The ingredients of both these offences, to some extent, are also different inasmuch as to complete an offence of D 'dacoity' under Section 396 IPC, five or more persons must conjointly commit the robbery while under Section 302 of the IPC even one person by himself can commit the offence of

murder. But, as already noticed, k attract the provisions of Section 396, the offence of 'dacoity' must be coupled with E murder. In other words, the ingredients of Section 302 become an integral part of the· offences punishable under Section 396 of the IPC. Resultantly, the distinction with regard to the number of persons involved in the commission of the crime loses its significance as it is possible that the offence of 'dacoity' may F not be proved but stil!rthe offence of murder couid be

established, like in the present case. Upon reasonable analysis of the language of these.provisions, it is clear that the Court has to keep in mind the Jngredients ~hich shall constitute a criminal offence within the meaning of the penal section. This G is not only essential in the case of the offence charged with but even where there is comparative study of different penal

provisions as the accused may have committed more than one offence or even offences of a graver nature. He may finally be punished for a lesser offence or vice versa, if the law so permits H and the requisite ingredients are satisfied.

RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STAT.E OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] 12. So far the judicial pronouncements show a consistent trend that wherever an accused is charged with a grave offence, he can be punished for a less grave offence finally, if the grave offence is not proved. For example, a person charged with an offence under Section 302 of the IPC may finally be convicted only for an offence under Section 304 Part II where the

prescribed punishment is lesser and the consequences of conviction are less serious in comparison to a conviction under Section 302. But even in those cases, the Court has to be cautious while examining whether the ingredients of the

offences are independently satisfied. If the ingredients even of c a lesser offence are not satisfied then it may be difficult in a given case for the court to convict the person for an offence of a less grave nature. There can be cases where it may not be possible at all to punish a person of a less grave offence if its ingredients are completely different and distinct from the grave offence. To deal with this aspect illustratively, one could say that a person who is charged with an offence under Section 326

may not be liable to be convicted for an offence under Section 406 IPC because their ingredients are entirely distinct, different and have to be established by the prosecution on its own

strength. In other words, the accused has to be charged with a grave offence which would take within its ambit and scope the ingredients of a less grave offence. The evidence led by the prosecution for a grave offence, thus, would cover an· offence of a less gr~ve nature. But it is essential that the offence for which the Court proposes to punish the accused, is established beyond reasonable doubt by the prosecution.

i 911; VO 13. A'Constitution Bench of this Court in the case of Willie (William) Slaneylv. Stat~ of Madhya Pradesh [AIR 1956 SC 116] dealt with a question as to whether omission to frame a charge was a curable irregularity. In that case the accused was -charged for committing an offence punishable under Section 302 IPC but the Court finally convicted him of an offence

punis_hable under Section 304, Part' II. The Court,: while ·examining if th~ accused had been prejudiced in his de.fence A and the validity of his conviction, held as under: c "6. Before we proceed to set out our answer and examine

the provisions of the Code, we will pause to observe that the Code is a code of procedure and, like all procedural laws, is designed to further the ends of justice and not to frustrate them by the introduction of endless technicalities. The object of the Code is to ensure that an accused person gets a full and fair trial along certain well-established and well-understood line that accord with our notions of natural justice. If he does, if he is tried by a competent court, if he is told and clearly understands the nature of the offence

for which he is being tried, if the case against him is fully and fairly explained to him and he is afforded a full and fair opportunity of defending himself, then, provided there is substantial compliance with the outward forms of the law, mere mistakes in procedure, mere inconsequential errors

and omi~sions in the trial are regarded as venal by the Code and the trial Ys not vitiated unless the accused can show substantial prejudice. Thal, broadly speaking, is the basic principle on which the Code is based.

7. Now here, as in all procedural laws, certain things are regarded as vital. Disregard of a provision of that nature is fatal to the trial and at once invalidates the conviction. Others are not vital and whatever the irregularity they can be cured; and in that event the conviction must stand

unless the Court is satisfied that there was prejudice. Some of these matters are dealt with by the Code and wherever that is the case full effect must be given to its provisions. The question here is, does the Code deal with

the absence of a charge and irregularities in it, and if so, into which of the two categories does it place them ? But before looking into the Code, we deem it desirable to refer to certain decisions of the Privy Council because much of

the judicial thinking in this country has been moulded by . their observations. In our opinion, the general effect of those decisions can be summarised as follows. RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF UP.

[SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] xxx xxx xxx 17. It is possible (though we need not so decide in this case) that the recent amendment to section 537 in the Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Act XXVI of

1955, where mis-joinder of charges has been placed in the curable category, will set at rest the controversy that has raged around the true meaning of N. A. Subramania Iyer v. King-Emperor. In any case, our opinion is that the real object of the Code Is to leave these matters to the

discretion and vigilance of the courts. Slightly to alter the language of the Privy Council in Babula/ Choukhani v. The King-Emperor (1938] L.R. 65 lndAp 158, we would say· "It must be hoped, and indeed assumed, that

magistrates and judges will exercise their jurisdiction fairly and honestly. Such is the implied condition of the exercise of judicial power. It they do not, or if they go wrong in fact or in law, the

accused has prima facie a right of recourse to the superior courts by way of appeal or revision; and the cases show how vigilant and resolute the High Courts are in seeing that the accused is not

prejudiced or embarrassed by unsubstantial departures from the Code and how closely and jealously the Supreme Court guards the position of the accused. These safeguards may well have

appeared to the Legislature to be sufficient when they enacted the remedial provisions of the Code and have now left them substantially unaltered in the new Code recently introduced".

This, we feel, is the true intent and purpose of section S37(a) which covers every proceeding taken with jurisdiction in the general phrase "or other proceedings under this Code". It is for the Court in all these cases to determine whether there has been prejudice to the

accused; and in doing so to bear in mind that some violations are so obviously opposed to natural justice and the true intendment of the Code that on the face of them and without anything else they must be struck down, while

in other cases a close examination of all the circumstances will be called for in order to discover whether the accused has been prejudiced. c xxx xxx xxx In adjudging the question of prejudice the fact that the

absence of a charge, or a substantial mistake in it, is a serious lacuna will naturally operate to the benefit of the accused and if there is any reasonable and substantial doubt about whether he was, or was reasonably likely to

have been, misled in the circumstances of any particular case, he is as much entitled to the benefit of it here as elsewhere; but if, on a careful consideration of all the facts, prejudice, or a reasonable and substantial likelihood of it, is not disclosed the conviction must stand; also it will

always be material to consider whether objection to the nature of the charge, or a total want of one, was taken at an early stage. If it was not, and particularly where the accused is

defended by 'AIR 1930 PC 57 (2) at p.58 (G)', it may in a given case be proper to conclude that the accused was satisfied and knew just what he was being tried for and knew what was being alleged against him and wanted no

further particulars. provided it is always borne in mind that "no serious defect in the mode of conducting a criminal trial can be justified or cured by the consent of the advocate

of the accused" 'AIR 1927 PC 44 at pp.46-47 & 49 (F)'. But these are matters of fact which ill be special to each different case and no conclusion on these questions of fact in any one case can ever be regarded as a

precedent or a guide for a conclusion of fact in another, RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] because the facts can never be alike in any two cases however alike they may seem. There is no such thing as

a judicial precedent on facts though counsel, and even judges, are sometimes prone to argue and to act if there were." 14. The Court, while laying down the above law, significantly noticed that the Code is a code of procedure and like all procedural laws is designed to further the ends of justice and not to frustrate them by the introduction of endless

technicalities. The object of the code is to ensure that an accused person gets a full and fair trial along with certain well- established and well-understood canons of law that accord with the notions of natural justice.

15. In the case of Iman Ali & Anr. v. State of Assam, [AIR 1968 SC 1464], the Court had the occasion to explain the distinction between the scope, liability and punishment for an offence under Section 396, as opposed to Section 302 IPC.

The Court noticed that the offence under Section 396 was no less heinous than an offence under Section 302 though in the latter case, it was obligatory on the part of the Court to record reasons for not awarding death sentence. The Court while

sustaining the enhancement of punishment from sentence of life imprisonment to sentence of death by the High Court on the ground that there was a direct evidence to show that the accused had committed the alleged murder, held as under:

… ·- "Learned counsel for the appellants, in challenging the justification for the order of enhancement of sentence by the High Court, relied on the principle laid down by this court in Dalip Singh v. State of Punjab, 1954 SCR 145

at p.156 =(AIR 1953 SC 364 at pp. 367-368,1 which was explained in the following words:- "ln a case of murder, the death sentence should ordinarily be imposed unless the trying Judge for

reasons which should normally be recorded c [2011) 11 S.C.R. considers it proper to award the lesser penalty. But the discretion is his and if he gives reasons on which a jud~cial mind could properly be found, an

appellate court should not interfere. The power to enhance a sentence from transportation to death should very rarely be exercised and only for the strongest possible reasons. It is not enough for an

appellate court to say, or think, that if left to itself It would have awarded the greater penalty because the discretion does not belong to the appellate court but to the trial Judge and the only ground on which

an appellate court can interfere is that the discretion has been improperly exercised, as for example, where no reasons are given and none can be inferred from the circumstances of the case, or

where the facts are so gross that no normal judicial . mind would have awarded the lesser penalty." It appears to us, however, that, in the present case, this principle is of no assistance to the appellants for

challenging the step taken by the High Court. This court cautioned ·the appellate court against interfering if the discretion of the trying Judge is exercised for reasons recorded by him and if· it appears from the reasons that

he had exercised a judicial mind in not awarding the sentence of death, !n the present case, as mentioned by the Hl9h Court and c:ts is appll!rent from the judgment of th~ Court of Sessi<:m, the trial court awarded the sentence gf Imprisonment for life without giving any reasons at all for adoptin9 thitt cQursl!9. It is true that the app~ll;:ints were flot QC>l'!Victec:t in the present caise for the offence of m1.1rder slmpliPit~r under Section 302. IPC: put that, in our opinion, iis imrnateri"I, The conviction of the i:ippellants under

$@~tion S96 IPC, wa~ not b;;1~!!!d on eonstructive liability as momberE$ of the gang of dacolts. There was clear finding by the court of Session which has been upheld by the High Court that each of these appellants committed a cold-

RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.) blooded murder by shooting two inmates of the house A simply with the object of facilitating commission of dacoity by them. Those persons were shot and killed even though

they had not even tried to put up any resistance. The offence under Section 396 IPC, was therefore, no less heinous than an offence under Section 302 IPC. In these B circumstances, when the court of Session gave no reason

at all for not awarding the sentence of death and for sentencing them to imprisonment for life only, it cannot be held that the High Court was not justified in interfering with that order.

c Learned counsel in this connection refereed us to a decision of a Division Bench of the Allahabad High Court in Lal Singh v. Emperor A.l.R. 1938 Alld. 625, where it was held: "We do not consider that as a general rule a

sentence of death should necessarily follow a conviction under s. 396, l.P.C., and this Section differs from s. 302, l.P.C., in that respect. The rule is under s. 302, that a sentence of death should E

follow unless reasons are shown for giving a lesseL– sentence. No such rule applies to s. 396, l.P.C." Again, we do not think that the learned Judges of the Allahabad High Court intended to lay down that, even in

cases where a person is convicted for the offence under s. 398, l.P.C., and there is clear evidence that he himself had committed a cold-blooded murder in committing the dacoity, a sentence of death should not follow, Clearly, the vi~w expreseed was meant to apply to those cases where

there could be no definite finding as to which person G committed the murder and all the members of the gang are held constnJctlvely guilty of the offence punishable under s. 396, l.P.C. A principle enunciated for such a situation cannot be applied to a case where there is direct evidence that a particular accused committed the murder himself, H

f2011] 11 S.C.R. as is the finding in the present case." 17. With the passage of time more and more such cases came up for consideration of this Court as well as the High Courts. The development of law has not changed the basic

principles which have been statedln the judgments afore- referred. Usually an offence of grave nature includes in itself the essentials of a lesser but cognate offence. In other words, there are classes of offences like offences against the human body, offences against property and offences relating to cheating, misappropriation, forgery etc. In the normal course of events, the question of grave and less grave offences would arise in relation to the offences falling in the same class and normally may not be inter se the classes. It is expected of the prosecution to collect all evidence in accordance with law to ensure that the prosecution is able to establish the charge with which the accused is charged, beyond reasonable doubt. It is only in those cases, keeping in view the facts and circumstances of a given case and if the court is of the view that the grave offence has not been established on merits or for a default of technical nature, it may still proceed to punish the accused for an offence of a less grave nature and content.

18. In the case of Anil @ Raju Namdev Patil vs. Administration of Daman & Diu and Anr. [2006 Suppl. (9) :SCR 466], the Court had to deal with a situation where the accused, a car driver had kidnapped a child of five years for the purpose of demanding ransom and later killed the child. The accused had been charged for an offence punishable under Sections

364, 302 and 201 IPC, but was finally convicted for an offence punishable under Section 364-A and was awarded sentence G of death. This Court held that there was prejudice caused to the appellant and the sentence was modified from death to

rigorous imprisonment for life with conviction under Section 364 IPC. The Court, besides recording the above findings on the merits of the case noticed the precedents in relation to non- framing of charge. The Bench referred to various judgments of RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

[SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] this Court in K. Prema S. Rao and Anr. v. Yad/a Srinivasa Rao A and Ors. [(2003) 1 SCC 217], Kammari Brahmaiah and Ors. v. Public Prosecutor, High Court of A.P. [(1999) 2 sec 522], Dalbir Singh v. State of U.P. [(2004 5 sec 334],.

Kamalanantha and Ors. v. State of T.N. [(2005 5 sec 194], Harjit Singh v. State of Punjab [(2006 1 SCC 463] and recapitulated the principles of law stated in these judgments and stated the following precepts of law which would govern such cases:

'The propositions of law which can be culled out from the e aforementioned judgments are: (i) The appellant should not suffer any prejudice by reason of misjoinder of charges. (ii)

A conviction for lesser offence is o permissible. (iii) It should not result in failure of justice. (iv) If there is a substantial compliance, misjoinder of charges may not be fatal and

such misjoinder must be arising out of mere misjoinder to frame charges. The ingredients for commission of offence of Section 364 and 364-A are different. Whereas the intention to kidnap

in order that he may be murdered or may be so disposed of as to be put in danger as murder satisfied the requirements of Section 364 of the Indian Penal Code, for obtaining a conviction for commission of an offence u11der Section 364-A thereof it is necessary to prove that not only G such kidnapping or abetment has taken place but

thereafter the accused threatened to cause death or hurt to such person or by his conduct gives rise to a reasonable apprehension that such person may be put to death or hurt or causes hurt or death to such person in order to compel

c (2011] 11 S.C.R. the government or any other person to do or abstain from c;loing any act or to pay a ransom. It was, thus, obligatory on the part of the learnec;I Sessions Judge, Daman, to frame a charge which would

answer the description of the offence envisaged under Section 364-A of the Indian Penal Code. It may be true that the kidnapping was done with a view to get ransom but the same should have been put to the appellant while

framing a charge. The prejudice to the appellant is apparent as the ingredients of a higher offence had not been put to him while framing any charge. It is not a case unlike Kammari Brahma/ah (supra)

where the offence was of a lesser gravity, as has been observed by Shah, J." 19. In light of the above principles, let us now examine the meaning of 'prejudice'. The expression has been defined in Black's Law Dictionary (Eighth Edition), as follows:

"prejudice, 1. Damage or detriment to one's legal rights or claims. See dismissal with prejudice, dismissal without prejudice under DISMISSAL. Legal prejudice. A condition that, if shown by a party, will usu. defeat the opposing party's i:iction: esp. a condition that, if shown by the defendant, will defeat a plaintiff's motion to dismiss a case without prejudice. The defendant

may show that dismissal will deprive the defendant of a substantive property right or preclude the defendant from raising a defense that will be unavailable or endan9ered in a second suit.

Undue prejudice. The harm resulting from a fact-trier's being exposed to evidence that is persuasive but inadmissible (such as evidence of prior criminal conduct) or that so arouses the emotions that calm and logical

reasoning is abandoned. RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. 94S [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] 2. A preconceived judgment formed without a factual basis; a strong bias" 20. When we speak of prejudice to an accused, it has to

be shown that the accused has suffered some disability or detriment in the protections available to him under the Indian criminal jurisprudence. It is also a settled canon of criminal law that this has occasioned the accused with failure of justice. One of the other cardinal principles of criminal justice administration is that the courts should make a close examination to ascertain whether there was really a failure of justice or whether it is only a camouflage, as this expression is perhaps too pliable. With the developmen1 of law, Indian courts have accepted the

following protections to and rights of the accused during investigation and trial : (a) The accused has the freedom to maintain silence during investigation as well as before the Court. The

accused may choose to maintain silence or make complete denial even when his statement under Section 313 of the Code of Criminal Procedure is being recorded, of course, the Court would be

entitled to draw inference, including adverse inference, as may be permissible to it in accordance with law; (b) Right to fair trial (c) Presumption of innocence (not guilty) (d) Prosecution must prove its case beyond'

reasonable doubt. 21. Prejudice to an accused or failure of justice, thus, has to be examined with reference to these aspects. That alone, probably, is the method to determine with some element of

certainty and discernment whether there has been actual failure of justice. 'Prejudice' is incapable of being interpreted in its A generic sense and applied to criminal jurisprudence. The plea of prejudice has to be in relation to investigation or trial and not matters falling beyond their scope. Once the accused is able to show that there is serious prejudice to either of these aspects and that the same has defeated the rights available B to him under the criminal jurisprudence, then the accused can seek benefit under the orders of the Court.

22. Right to fair trial, presumption of innocence until pronouncement of guilt and the standards of proof, i.e., the prosecution must prove its case beyond reasonable doubt are C the basic and crucial tenets of our criminal jurisprudence. The Courts are required to examine both the contents of the

allegation of prejudice as well as its extent in relation to these aspects of the case of the accused. It will neither be possible nor appropriate to state such principle with exactitude as it will D always depend on the facts and circumstances of a given case. Therefore, the Court has to ensure that the ends of justice are met as that alone is the goal of criminal adjudication. Thus, wherever a plea of prejudice is raised by the accused, it must be examined with reference to the above rights and safeguards, E as it is the violation of these rights alone that may result in weakening of the case of the prosecution and benefit to the accused in accordance with law.

During conduct of trial, framing of a charge is an important F function of the court. Sections 211 to 224 of Chapter XVII of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 have been devoted by

the Legislature to the various facets of framing of charge and .other related matters thereto. Under Section 211, the charge should state the offence with which the accused is charged and G should contain the other particulars specified in that section. In terms of Section 214, in every charge words used in describing an offence shall be deemed to have been used in the sense

attached to them respectively by the law under which such offence is punishable. Another significant provision is Section 215 which states that no error in stating either the offence or RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

[SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] the particulars required to be stated in the charge, and no omission to state the offence or those particulars, shall be regarded at any stage of the case as material unless the

accused was in fact misled by such error or omission, and it has occasioned a failure of justice. Further, the court has been vested with the power to alter the charge. There could be trial of more than one offence together and there could even be joint trial of the accused. We have referred to these provisions primarily to indicate that the purpose of framing of a charge is to put the accused at notice regarding the offence for which he is being tried before the court of competent jurisdiction. For c want of requisite information of offence and details thereof, the accused should not suffer prejudice or there should not be failure of justice, as held by this Court in the case of

Shamnsaheb M. Multtani v. State of Karnataka [(2001) 2 SCC 577]. The requirements of putting the accused at notice and there being a charge containing the requisite particulars, as contemplated under Section 211, has to be read with reference to Section 215 of the Code. Every omission would not vitiate the trial. This Court has settled this position in the case of Willie (William) Slaney v. State of Madhya Pradesh [AIR 1956 SC

116] wherein the Court held as under : "36. Sections 222 to 224 deal with the form of a charge and explain what a charge should contain. Section 225 deals with the effect of errors relating to a charge. Sections 233 to 240 deal with the joinder of charges. Sections 535

and 537 are in the Chapter that deals with irregularities generally and these two sections deal specifically with the charge and make it clear that an omission to frame a charge as well as irregula~ities, errors and omission in a charge are all irregularities that do not vitiate or invalidate a conviction unless there is prejudice.

37. But, apart from that, if we examine the learned counsel's contention mor~ closely, the fallacy in his argument becomes clear. Sections 237 and 238 deatwith cases In which there is a charge to start with and then they go on to say that in certain cases the trial can proceed

beyond the matter actually charged and a conviction for an offence disclosed in the evidence in that type of case will be good despite the absence of a charge in respect of it. s But what are those cases? Only those in which the

additional charge or charges could have been framed from the start; and that is controlled by Sections 234, 235 and 239 which set out the rules about joinder of charges and persons."

c Dinesh Seth v. State of NCT of Delhi [(2008) 14 SCC 94] was a case where the accused was charged with an offence under Section 3048 read with Section 34 IPC but was finally convicted for an offence under Section 498A. The plea of

prejudice, on the ground that no specific charge under Section D 498A was framed and the Court, while referring to the.facts and circumstances of the case and the cross-examination of the prosecution witnesses found that it was unmistakably shown that the defence had made concerted efforts to discredit the testimony of the alleging cruelty,.was rejected and the accused E was punished for an offence under Section 498A. This clearly demonstrates the principle that in all cases, non-framing of charge or some defect in drafting of the charge per se would not vitiate the trial itself. It will have to be examined in the facts and circumstances of a given case. Of course, the court has F to keep in mind that the accused 'must be' and not merely 'may be' guilty of an offence. The mental distance between 'may be' and 'must be' is long and divides vague conjectures fmm sure conclusions. {Shivaji Sahebrao Bobade & Anr. v. State of

Maharashtra [AIR 1973 SC 2622)}. · 23. Having stated the above, let us now examine what kind of offences may fall in the same category except to thE! extent of 'grave or less grave'. We have already noticed that a person charged with a heinous or grave offence can be punished for a less grave offence of cognate nature whose essentials are RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

[SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] satisfied with the evidence on record. Examples of this kind have already been noticed by us like a charge b'!ling framed under Section 302 IPC and the accused being punished under Section 304, Part I or 11, as the circumstances and facts of the case may demand. Furthermore, a person who is charged with an offence under Section 326 IPC can be finally convicted for an offence of lesser gravity under Section 325 or 323 IPC, if the facts of the case so establish. Alike or similar offences can be termed as 'cognate offences'. The word 'cognate' is a term primarily used in civil jurisprudence particularly with reference to the provisions of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 where

Section 3(c) has used this expression in relation to the descendants of a class of heirs and normally the term is used with reference to blood relations. Section 3(c) of the Hindu Succession Act defines "cognat~" as follows:

"one person is said to pe a cognate of another if the two are related by blood or adoption but not wholly through males." 24. The Encyclopedia Law Lexicon, explain the word 'cognate' in relation to civil law as follows:

"Cognate. – According to Hindu Law it is a class of heirs, descended or borrowed from the same earlier form. It means blood relation including female relation. Word "cognate" literally means "akin in nature", Ram Briksh v. State, 1978 All Cri C 253"

25. This expression has also been recognized and applied to the criminal jurisprudence as well not only in the Indian system but even in other parts of the world. Such offences indicate the similarity, common essential features between the offences and they primarily being based on differences of

degree have been understood to be 'cognate offences'. Black's Law Dictionary (Eighth Edition) defines the expression 'cognate offences' as follows: "cognate offences. A lesser offence that is related to the greater offense because it shares several of the elements

of the greater offense and is of the same class or category. For example, shoplifting is a cognate offence of larceny because both crimes require the element of taking property with the intent to deprive the rightful owner of that property."

26. Therefore, where the offences are cognate offences with commonality in their feature, duly supported by evidence on record, the Courts can always exercise its power to punish C the accused for one or the other provided the accused does not suffer any prejudice as afore-indicated.

27. We may now refer to certain cases where this Court had the occasion to deal with·such issues. Certain divergent o views were also expressed in relation to conversion of an offence from a grave to a less grave offence. In the case of Lakhjit Singh v. State of Punjab [1994 Suppl.(1) SCC (Crl.) 173], the accused was charged with an offence under Section 302 IPC and convicted and sentenced for the said offence, both E by the Trial Court as well as the High Court. In appeal, a Division Bench of this Court considered whether the offence could be converted and the appellant could be convicted for an offence under Section 306 IPC. Having regard to the evidence adduced by the prosecution and the answer of the accused to the

questions put to him under Section 313 of the Cr.P.C., the Court F was satisfied that the accused had fair notice of the allegations to attract an offence under Section 306 IPC and as such there was no denial of fair trial to the accused. Finally, the Court convicted him of an offence under Section 306 IPC. However, a different view was expressed in a subsequent judgment by G another Division Bench of this Court in the case of

Sanagaraboina Sreenu v. State of A.P. [(1997) 5 SCC 348 : AIR 1957 SC 623]. In that case also the Court was dealing with the situation where the accused was charged under Section 302 but had been convicted under Section 306 IPC. This Court felt RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

[SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] that having acquitted the accused for an offence under Section A 302 which was the only charge against the accused, he could not have been convicted for an offence punishable under

Section 306 IPC as both these offences were distinct and different. Resultantly, the accused was acquitted. The controversy arising from these two judgments of this Court B came up for consideration before a three-Judge Bench of this court in the case of Dalbir Singh v. State of U.P. [(2004) 5 sec 334), wherein the accused was charged with an offence under Sections 302, 498A and 304-B IPC, but finally was convicted under Section 302 by the Trial Court and sentenced to death. c On appeal, the High Court acquitted him of the charge under Section 302 IPC opining that the evidence on record clearly established the charge under Section 306 IPC. Keeping in view the decision in the case of Sanagaraboina Sreenu (supra), the High Court had concluded that the accused could not be 0

convicted under Section 306 and on this basis convicted him under Section 498A alone. The argument raised before this Court was that the basic ingredients were distinct and different. The accused was not aware of the basic ingredients, the facts sought to be established against him were not explained to him E and he did not get a fair chance to defend himself. Resultantly, he ought not to have been convicted for an offence under

Section 498A IPC. Rejecting all these contentions, this Court, while convicting the accused for an offence under Section 306, held that the law stated in Sanagaraboina Sreenu (supra) was riot correct enunciation of law and held as under :

"This question was again examined by a three Judge Bench in Gurbachan Singh v. State of Punjab AIR 1957 SC 623 in which it was held as under: "[l]n judging a question of prejudice, as of guilt,

Courts must act with a broad vision and look to the substance and not to technicalities, and their main concern should be to see whether the accused had a fair trial, whether he knew what he was being tried

c for, whether the main facts sought to be established against him were explained to him fairly and clearly and whether he was given a full and fair chance to defend himself." 17. There are a catena of decisions of this Court on the

same lines and it is not necessary to burden this judgment by making reference to each one of them. Therefore, in view of Section 464 Cr.P.C., it is possible for the appellate or revisional Court to convict an accused for an offence

for which no charge was framed unless the Court is of the opinion that a failure of justice would in fact occasion. In order to judge whether a failure of justice has been occasioned, it will be relevant to examine whether the

accused was aware of the basic ingredients of the offence for which he is being convicted and whether the main facts sought to be established against him were explained to him clearly and whether he got a fair chance to defend

himself. We are, therefore, of the opinion that Sangarabonia Sreenu (AIR 1957 SC 623) was not correctly decided as it purports to lay down as a principle of law that where the accused is charged under Section

~02 IPC, he cannot be convicted for the offence under Section 306 IPC. xxx xxx xxx The next question to be seen is whether the accused was confronted with the aforesaid features of the prosecution

case in his statement under Section 313 CrPC. His statement runs into six pages where every aspect of the prosecution case referred to above was put to him. He also gave a long written statement in accordance with Section

233(2) CrPC wherein he admitted that Vimla committed suicide. He also admitted that the scooter and colour TV were subsequently given to him by his in-laws but came out with a plea that he had paid money and purchased the

same from his in-laws. There is no aspect of the RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.) prosecution which may not have been put to him. We are, therefore, of the opinion that in view of the material on

record, the conviction under Section 306 IPC can safely be recorded and the same would not result in failure of justice in any manner. The record shows that the accused was taken into custody on 29-3-1991 and was released

from jail after the decision of the High Court on 20-3-1997 and thus he has undergone nearly six years of imprisonment. In our opinion, the period already undergone (as undertrial and after conviction) would meet the ends

of justice." c 28. We may also make a reference to another three-Judge Bench judgment of this Court in the case of Shamnsaheb M. Multtani vs. State of Kamataka [(2001) 2 SCC 577) which was not noticed in the case of Dalbir Singh (supra). In that case, the accused initially had been charged with an offence under Section 302 IPC but was convicted for an offence under Section 3048 IPC as according to the High Court there was no failure of justice. This Court found error in the judgment of the High Court convicting the accused of an offence under Section 3048 as the accused was not put at notice of the adverse

presumption that the Court is statutorily bound to draw on satisfaction of two ingredients of Section 304-8. Therefore, this Court remanded the matter. It also noticed the conflict of views expressed in the cases of Lakhjit Singh (supra) and

Sanagaraboina Sreenu (supra) and mentioned that in 'cognate offences', the main ingredients are common and the one amongst them that is punishable with a lesser sentence can be regarded as a minor offence. The Court, finding that the

ingredients of Sections 302 and 3048 are different, held as follows: "15. Section 222(1) of the Code deals with a case ''when a person is charged with an offence consisting of several

particulars". The section permits the court to convict the accused "of the minor offence, though he was not charged c [2011] 11 S.C .. R. with it". Sub-section (2) deals with a similar, but slightly different situation.

"222. (2) When a person is charged with an offence and facts are proved which reduce it to a minor offence, he may be convicted of the minor offence, although he is not charged with it."

16. What is meant by "a minor offence" for the purpose of Section 222 of the Code? Although the said expression is not defined in the Code it can be discerned from the context that the test of minor offence is not merely that the prescribed punishment is less than the major offence. The

two illustrations provided in the section would bring the above point home well. Only if the two offences are cognate offences, wherein the main ingredients are common, the one punishable among them with a lesser

sentence can be regarded as minor offence vis-a-vis the other offence. 17. The composition of the offence under Section 304-8 IPC is vastly different from the formation of the offence of murder under Section 302 IPC and hence the former

cannot be regarded as minor offence vis-a-vis the latter. However, the position would be different when the charge also contains the offence under Section 498-A IPC (husband or relative of husband of a women subjecting her

to cruelty). As the word "cruelty" is explained as including, inter alia, "harassment of the woman where such harassment is with a view to coercing her or any person related to her to meet any unlawful demand for any property

or valuable security or is on account of failure by her or any person related to her to meet such demand". 18. So when a person is charged with an offence under Sections 302 and 498-A IPC on the allegation that he

RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] caused the death of a bride after subjecting her to A harassment with a demand for dowry, within a period of 7 years of marriage, a situation may arise, as in this case, that the offence of murder is not established as against the accused. Nonetheless, all other ingredients necessary for

the offence under Section 304-B IPC would stand established. Can the accused be convicted in such a case for the offence under Section 304-B IPC without the said offence forming part of the charge?

xxx xxx xxx c 30. But the peculiar situation in respect of an offence under Section 304-B IPC, as discernible from the distinction pointed out above in respect of the offence under Section 306 IPC is this: Under the former the court

has a statutory compulsion, merely on the establishment D of two factual positions enumerated above, to presume that the accused has committed dowry death. If any accused wants to escape from the said catch the burden

is on him to disprove it. If he fails to rebut the presumption the court is bound to act on it. 31. Now take the case of an accused who was called upon to defend only a charge under Section 302 IPC. The

burden of proof never shifts onto him. It ever remains on the prosecution which has to prove the charge beyond all reasonable doubt. The said traditional legal concept remains unchanged even now. In such a case. the

accused can wait till the prosecution evidence is over and then to show that the prosecution has failed to make out the said offence against him. No compulsory presumption would go to the assistance of the prosecution in such a G

situation. If that be so, when an accused has no notice of the offence under Section 304-8 IPC, as he was defending a charge under Section 302 IPC alone, would it not lead to a grave miscarriage of justice when he is alternatively convicted under Section 304-8 IPC and sentenced to the H

c [2011) 11 S.C.R. serious punishment prescribed thereunder, which mandates a minimum sentence of imprisonment for seven years. 32. The serious consequence which may ensue to the accused in such. r situation can be limned through an

illustration: If a bride was murdered within seven years of her marriage and there was evidence to show that either on the previous day or a couple of days earlier she was subjected to harassment by her husband with demand for

dowry, such husband would be guilty of the offence on the language of Section 304-B IPC read with Section 113-B of the Evidence Act. But if the murder of his wife was actually committed either by a dacoit or by a militant in a terrorist act the husband can lead evidence to show that

he had no hand in her death at all. If he succeeds in discharging the burden of proof he is not liable to be convicted under Section 304-B IPC. But if the husband is charged only under Section 302 IPC he has no burden to

prove that his wife was murdered like that as he can have his traditional defence that the prosecution has failed to prove the charge of murder against him and claim an order of acquittal.

xxx xxx xxx 35. As the appellant was convicted by the High Court under Section 304-B IPC, without such an opportunity being granted to him, we deem it necessary in the interest of

justice to afford him that opportunity. The case in the trial court should proceed against the appellant (not against the other two accused whose acquittal remains unchallenged now) from the stage of defence evidence. He is put to

notice that unless he disproves the presumption, he is liable to be convicted under Section 304-B IPC .. " 29. This concept of punishing the accused for a less grave offence than the one for which he was charged is not unique to RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

[SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] the Indian Judicial System. It has its relevancy even under the English jurisprudence under the concept of alternative verdicts. In R v. Coutts (Appellant), [2006 UKHL 39], the appellant was convicted by the jury of the murder of the deceased on an

· indictment charging him with that crime alone. The deceased · had died by accident when the appellant a·nd she had been engaged in consensual sexual asphyxia! activity. The House of Lords considered whether the issue of manslaughter should

1 have been left to the jury as an alternative verdict which they could return under Section 6(2) of the Criminal Law Act, 1967. The Court of Appeal rejected the appellant's contention that this c issue should have been left to the jury by the trial judge on the ground that for the judge to introduce the possibility of a verdict of manslaughter on these grounds would have transformed the nature of the case that the appellant was required to meet. The appellant argued in appeal that if the trial judge fails to leave to the jury an intermediate verdict in the alternative which is raised by credible evidence, that is an irregularity which will render the verdict unsafe. The Crown took the stand that this was a deliberate and sadistic killing. In resolving this issue, the House of Lords was simultaneously faced with the broader

question concerning the duty and discretion of trial judges to leave alternative verdicts of lesser-included offences to the jury where there is evidence which a rational jury could accept to support such a verdict but neither prosecution nor defence seek it. Lord Bingham of Cornhill spoke thus on behalf of his four learned colleagues:

"The public interest in the administration of justice is, in my opinion, best served if in any trial on indictment the trial judge leaves to the jury, subject to any appropriate caution or warning, but irrespective of the wishes of trial counsel, any obvious alternative offence which there is

evidence to support. I would not extend the rule to summary proceedings since, for all their potential importance to individuals, they do not engage the public interest to the same degree. I would also confine the rule to alternative verdicts obviously raised by the evidence: by that I refer to alternatives which should suggest themselves to the mind of any ordinarily knowledgeable and alert

criminal judge, excluding alternatives which ingenious counsel may identify through diligent research after the trial. Application of this rule may in some cases benefit the defendant, protecting him against an excessive conviction. In other cases it may benefit the public, by providing for the conviction of a lawbreaker who deserves punishment.

A defendant may, quite reasonably from his point of view, c choose to roll the dice. But the interests of society should not depend on such a contingency. (emphasis supplied)" 30. Therefore, the Lords were of the unanimous opinion

D that the judge should have left a manslaughter verdict to the jury and his failure to do so was a material irregularity. The Court of Appeal, following the advice of the House of Lords, quashed the appellant?s conviction and ordered a retrial.

31. As is evident from the above stated principles of law in various judgments, there is no absolute bar or impediment, in law, in punishing a person for an offence less grave than the offences for which the accused was charged during the course of the trial provided the essential ingredients for adopting such F a course are satisfied.

32. In the present case, we are primarily concerned with an offence punishable under Section 396 IPC and in alternative for an offence under Section 302 of the IPC. The offence under Section 396 consists of two parts: firstly, dacoity by five or more G persons, and secondly, committing of a murder in addition to the offence of dacoity. If the accused have committed both these offences, they are liable to be punished with death or

imprisonment for life or rigorous imprisonment for a term which may extend to ten years and be liable to pay fine as well. Under H Section 302 IPC, whoever commits murder shall be punished RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P.

[SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] with death or imprisonment for life and shall also be liable to pay fine. The offence of murder has been explained under Section 300 IPC. If the act by which the death is caused is done with the intention of causing death, it is murder. It will also be a murder, if it falls in any of the circumstances secondly, thirdly and fourthly of Section 300 and it is not so when it falls in the exception to that Section.

33. On the conjoint reading of Sections 396 and 302 IPC, it is clear that the offence of murder has been lifted and incorporated in the provisions of Section 396 IPC. In other words, the offence of murder punishable under Section 302 and as defined under Section 300 will have to be read into the provisions of offences stated under Section 396 IPC. In other words, where a provision is physically lifted and made part of another provision, it shall fall within the ambit and scope of principle akin to 'legislation by incorporation' which normally is applied between an existing statute and a newly enacted law. The expression 'murder' appearing in Section 396 would have to take necessarily in its ambit and scope the ingredients of Section 300 of the IPC. In our opinion, there is no scope for any ambiguity. The provisions are clear and admit no scope for application of any other principle of interpretation except the 'golden rule of construction', i.e., to read the statutory language grammatically and terminologically in the ordinary and primary sense which it appears in its context without omission or

addition. These provisions read collectively, put the matter beyond ambiguity that the offence of murder, is by specific language, included in the offences under Section 396. It will have the same connotation, meaning and ingredients as are

contemplated under the provisions of Section 302 IPC. 34. In light of the principles afore-stated, now we may revert to the facts and circumstances of the case in hand. It is admittedly a case of circumstantial evidence and, thus, the evidence has to be examined in that context. There is no

dispute to the fact that the charge under Sections 396 and 201 IPC had been framed against the accused. The Trial Court had acquitted the four accused but convicted the present appellant for an offence under Sections 302 and 201 while convicting another accused, namely Ahsan, for an offence punishable

under Section 411 IPC. The judgment of the trial court was B upheld by the High Court in so far as the acquittal of the four accused for the offences under Section 396 was concerned as well as the conviction of the present appellant under Section 396 IPC. However, the High Court acquitted Ahsan for the

offence under Section 201 IPC which does not concern us in c the present appeal. The charge being under Section 396 alone whether the accused could have been convicted for an offence under Section 302 IPC without alteration of charge is the short question involved in the case before us. Let us examine the evidence for conviction of the appellant on the basis. of the circumstantial evidence. The High Court in paragraph 35 of its judgment has stated the following circumstances which

undoubtedly point towards the guilt of the accused: – "1. That the deceased (Jagdish Chandra) left his house/ shop for Nehtaur on 30.09.77 to realize the amount from customers. 2. That he was seen in Nehtaur Kasba by PW-2 Ved

Prakash and PW-4 Gyan Chand on that day who saw him occupying taxi no. UPS 7293. 3. That the deceased was sitting in the taxi along with others and appellant Rafiq Ahm.ad was found on the driver

seat; 4. That the taxi in question proceeded for Dhampur from Agency Chauraha, Nehtaur in the presence of PW-4 Gyan Chand; 5. That the appellant (Rafiq Ahmad) was arrested by the police on 2.10. 77 alongwith his taxi and he made a

confession to the 10 in the presence of two public RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] witnesses that he had concealed the dead body in a sugarcane field near village kashmiri;

6. That subsequent recovery of the dad (sic) body of deceased (Jagdish Chandra) from the sugarcane field at the pointing out of the appellant in the night indicates that Rafiq Ahmad alongwith some others looted the cash and

other valuables from the person of the deceased. 7. That Jagdish Chandra was done to death by the appellant (Rafiq Ahmad) in the night intervening 30.9.77/ 1.10. 77 and the appellant with a view to screen himself C from legal punishment caused disappearance of the dead

body by throwing the same in the sugarcane field." 35. The above circumstances have to be examined along with the statements of Ved Prakash (PW2) and Gyan Chand o (PW4), the witnesses who had last seen the deceased with the appellant. The statements of the Investigating Officer (PW11) and the witnesses including Pyare Lal (PW3), in whose

presence the dead body was recovered at the behest of the appellant, by means of recovery memo Ex.PW Ex-Ka 3 are the other material pieces of evidence which would complete the chain of events and point undoubtedly towards the guilt of the accused. The accused, for the reasons best known to him, had taken up a stand of complete denial in his statement dated 20th February, 1981 recorded under Section 313 Cr.P.C. and opted not to explain his whereabouts at the relevant time. Furthermore, he was a regular taxi driver at the stand of Agency Chauraha. It is true that the statement under Section 313 Cr.P.C. cannot be the sole basis for conviction of the accused but certainly it can be a relevant consideration for the courts to examine, particularly when the prosecution has otherwise been able to establish the chain of events. It is clearly established from the evidence on record that the deceased was a regular trader and used to come to Nehtaur from where he was picked up by the appellant on the fateful day. These were certain definite

circumstances clearly indicating towards the involvement of the l A appellant in the commission of the crime. The prosecution has been able to establish its case beyond reasonable doubt on the basis of the circumstantial evidence. There is no significant link which is missing in the case put forward by the prosecution. 36. At this stage, we may refer to a Constitution Bench

judgment of this Court in the case of Shyam Behari v. State of Uttar Pradesh [AIR 1957 S.C. 320] wherein the accused after being charged for an offence under Section 396 IPC was finally convicted under Section 302 IPC. The Court in the said

judgment held as under: ,C "15. It is, however, unnecessary to do so because in the facts and circumstances of the present case the appellant is liable to be convicted of the offence under Section 302 Indian Penal Code without anything more. The charge

under Section 396, Indian Penal Code comprised of two ingredients:- (1) the commission of the dacoity, and (2) the commission of the murder in so committing the dacoity. The first ingredient was proved without any doubt and was

not challenged by the learned counsel for the appellant. The second ingredient also was proved in any event as regards the commission of the murder because the attention of the accused was focused not only on the

commission of the offence while committing the dacoity but also on the individual part which he took in the commission of that murder. So far as he was concerned, he knew from the charge which was framed against him that he was

sought to be made responsible not only for the commission of the dacoity but also for the commission of the murder in committing such dacoity. The evidence which was led on behalf of the prosecution specifically implicated . him and he was named by the prosecution witnesses as

the person who shot at Mendai while crossing the ditch of the Pipra Farm. His examination under section 342 of the Criminal Procedure Code also brought out that point specifically against him and he was questioned in that

RAFIQ AHMED @ RAFI v. STATE OF U.P. [SWATANTER KUMAR, J.] behalf. Both the Courts below recorded their concurrent findings of fact in regard to the part taken by the appellant in the commission of the murder of Mendai. Under these

circumstances it could not be urged that the appellant could not be convicted of the offence under Section 302, Indian Penal Code if such a charge could be made out against him (Vide our decision in Willie (William) Slaney v. State of Madhya Pradesh, Crl App No. 6 of 1955 D/- 31-10-

1955 ( (S) AIR 1956 SC 116) (F)" 37. The above Constitution Bench judgment of this Court, in law, squarely applies to the present case. We ought not be understood to say that the facts of both the cases are identical. In the case of Shyam Behari (supra), the accused had killed the deceased while retreating after committing the dacoity while in the present case the evidence, though circumstantial, is that the appellant had killed the accused brutally and then hid his dead body in the fields to destroy the evidence. Thus, suffice it to note that both the cases have some similarity in

circumstances but the principle of law stated in Shyam Behari's case (supra) is squarely applicable to the present case. 38. For the reasons afore-recorded, we are of the considered view that no prejudice has been caused to the

appellant by his conviction for an offence under Section 302 IPC though he was initially charged with an offence punishable under Section 396 IPC read with Section 201 IPC. Further, the nature of injuries namely three incised wounds, three abrasions and severing of the trachea, caused by a sharp-edged weapon as noticed by the High Court in para 34 of its judgment, indicate that the accused knew that the injury inflicted would be sufficient in the ordinary course of nature to cause death. The 'prejudice' has to be examined with reference to the rights and/or

protections available to the accused. The incriminating evidence had been clearly put to the accused in his statement under Section 313 Cr.P.C. The circumstances which constitute an offence under Section 302 were literally put to him, as A Section 302 IPC itself is an integral part of an offence punishable under Section 396 IPC. The learned counsel

appearing for the appellant has not been able to demonstrate any_ prejudice which the appellant has suffered in his right to defence, fair trial and in relation to the case of the prosecution. B Once the appellant has not suffered any prejudice, much less a serious prejudice, then the conviction of the appellant under Section 302 IPC cannot be set aside merely for want of framing of a specific/alternate charge for an offence punishable under Section 302 IPC. It is more so because the dimensions and

C facets of an offence under Section 302 are incorporated by specific language and are inbuilt in the offence punishable under Section 396 IPC. Thus, on the application of principle of

'cognate offences', there is no prejudice caused to the rights of the appellant. 39. For the reasons afore-stated, we find no merit in this appeal and the same is dismissed. D.G.·

Appeal dismissed.